Scarlet fever

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American Academy of Pediatrics. Group A streptococcal infections. In: Kimberlin DW, Barnett ED, Lynfield R, et al, eds. Red book: 2021-2024 report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 32nd ed. Itasca, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2021.Full text

UK Health Security Agency. Guidelines for the public health management of scarlet fever outbreaks in schools, nurseries and other childcare settings. Jan 2023 [internet publication].Full text

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2. Shulman ST, Bisno AL, Clegg HW, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2012 Nov 15;55(10):e86-102. [Erratum in: Clin Infect Dis. 2014 May;58(10):1496.]Full text  Abstract

3. American Academy of Pediatrics. Group A streptococcal infections. In: Kimberlin DW, Barnett ED, Lynfield R, et al, eds. Red book: 2021-2024 report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 32nd ed. Itasca, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2021.Full text

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5. Lamagni T, Guy R, Chand M, et al. Resurgence of scarlet fever in England, 2014-16: a population-based surveillance study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018 Feb;18(2):180-7.Full text  Abstract

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9. Walker MJ, Brouwer S. Scarlet fever makes a comeback. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018 Feb;18(2):128-9. Abstract

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13. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Scarlet fever: information for clinicians. Jun 2022 [internet publication].Full text

14. Managing scarlet fever. Drug Ther Bull. 2017 Sep;55(9):102. Abstract

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17. Wu S, Peng X, Yang Z, et al. Estimated burden of group a streptococcal pharyngitis among children in Beijing, China. BMC Infect Dis. 2016 Aug 26;16(1):452.Full text  Abstract

18. Herdman MT, Cordery R, Karo B, et al. Clinical management and impact of scarlet fever in the modern era: findings from a cross-sectional study of cases in London, 2018-2019. BMJ Open. 2021 Dec 24;11(12):e057772.Full text  Abstract

19. Watts V, Balasegaram S, Brown CS, et al. Increased risk for invasive group A streptococcus disease for household contacts of scarlet fever cases, England, 2011-2016. Emerg Infect Dis. 2019 Mar;25(3):529-37.Full text  Abstract

20. Ferretti JJ, Stevens DL, Fischetti VA, eds. Streptococcus pyogenes: basic biology to clinical manifestations [internet]. 2nd ed. Oklahoma City, OK: University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center; 2022.Full text

21. Brook MG, Bannister BA. Scarlet fever can mimic toxic shock syndrome. Postgrad Med J. 1988 Dec;64(758):965-7.Full text  Abstract

22. Stevens DL. Invasive group A streptococcus infections. Clin Infect Dis. 1992 Jan;14(1):2-11. Abstract

23. UK Health Security Agency. Scarlet fever: symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. Mar 2019 [internet publication].Full text

24. Cordery R, Purba AK, Begum L, et al. Frequency of transmission, asymptomatic shedding, and airborne spread of Streptococcus pyogenes in schoolchildren exposed to scarlet fever: a prospective, longitudinal, multicohort, molecular epidemiological, contact-tracing study in England, UK. Lancet Microbe. 2022 May;3(5):e366-75.Full text  Abstract

25. UK Health Security Agency. Guidelines for the public health management of scarlet fever outbreaks in schools, nurseries and other childcare settings. Jan 2023 [internet publication].Full text

26. McGuire E, Li A, Collin SM, et al. Time to negative throat culture following initiation of antibiotics for pharyngeal group A streptococcus: a systematic review and meta-analysis to inform public health control measures [preprint]. medRxiv. 2022 Nov 8 [Epub ahead of print].Full text

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30. Windfuhr JP, Toepfner N, Steffen G, et al. Clinical practice guideline: tonsillitis I. Diagnostics and nonsurgical management. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2016 Apr;273(4):973-87.Full text  Abstract

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32. Cohen JF, Cohen R, Levy C, et al. Selective testing strategies for diagnosing group A streptococcal infection in children with pharyngitis: a systematic review and prospective multicentre external validation study. CMAJ. 2015 Jan 6;187(1):23-32.Full text  Abstract

33. Cohen JF, Cohen R, Bidet P, et al. Efficiency of a clinical prediction model for selective rapid testing in children with pharyngitis: A prospective, multicenter study. PLoS One. 2017;12(2):e0172871.Full text  Abstract

34. Roggen I, van Berlaer G, Gordts F, et al. Centor criteria in children in a paediatric emergency department: for what it is worth. BMJ Open. 2013 Apr 22;3(4):e002712.Full text  Abstract

35. Pecina JL, Nigon LM, Penza KS, et al. Use of the McIsaac score to predict group A streptococcal pharyngitis in outpatient nurse phone triage and electronic visits compared with in-person visits: retrospective observational study. J Med Internet Res. 2021 Dec 20;23(12):e25899.Full text  Abstract

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37. Cohen JF, Bertille N, Cohen R, et al. Rapid antigen detection test for group A streptococcus in children with pharyngitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Jul 4;7(7):CD010502.Full text  Abstract

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39. Barakat AJ, Evans C, Gill M, et al. Rapid strep testing in children with recently treated streptococcal pharyngitis. Pediatr Investig. 2019 Mar;3(1):27-30.Full text  Abstract

40. McIsaac WJ, White D, Tannenbaum D, et al. A clinical score to reduce unnecessary antibiotic use in patients with sore throat. CMAJ. 1998 Jan 13;158(1):75-83.Full text  Abstract

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42. Shaikh N, Swaminathan N, Hooper EG. Accuracy and precision of the signs and symptoms of streptococcal pharyngitis in children: a systematic review. J Pediatr. 2012 Mar;160(3):487-493.e3. Abstract

43. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Measles (rubeola)​: for healthcare providers. Nov 2020 [internet publication].Full text

44. Mackenzie A, Fuite LA, Chan FT, et al. Incidence and pathogenicity of Arcanobacterium haemolyticum during a 2-year study in Ottawa. Clin Infect Dis. 1995 Jul;21(1):177-81. Abstract

45. McIsaac WJ, Kellner JD, Aufricht P, et al. Empirical validation of guidelines for the management of pharyngitis in children and adults. JAMA. 2004 Apr 7;291(13):1587-95.Full text  Abstract

46. Little P, Hobbs FD, Moore M, et al. Clinical score and rapid antigen detection test to guide antibiotic use for sore throats: randomised controlled trial of PRISM (primary care streptococcal management). BMJ. 2013 Oct 10;347:f5806.Full text  Abstract

47. Shaikh N, Leonard E, Martin JM. Prevalence of streptococcal pharyngitis and streptococcal carriage in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2010 Sep;126(3):e557-64. Abstract

48. Gerber MA, Baltimore RS, Eaton CB, et al. Prevention of rheumatic fever and diagnosis and treatment of acute streptococcal pharyngitis: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, the Interdisciplinary Council on Functional Genomics and Translational Biology, and the Interdisciplinary Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research: endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics. Circulation. 2009 Mar 24;119(11):1541-51.Full text  Abstract

49. Holm AE, Llor C, Bjerrum L, et al. Short- vs. long-course antibiotic treatment for acute streptococcal pharyngitis: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Antibiotics (Basel). 2020 Oct 26;9(11):733.Full text  Abstract

50. van Driel ML, De Sutter AI, Thorning S, et al. Different antibiotic treatments for group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Mar 17;(3):CD004406.Full text  Abstract

51. Altamimi S, Khalil A, Khalaiwi KA, et al. Short-term late-generation antibiotics versus longer term penicillin for acute streptococcal pharyngitis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Aug 15;(8):CD004872.Full text  Abstract

52. World Health Organization. Critically important antimicrobials for human medicine: 6th revision.​ Mar 2019 [internet publication].Full text

53. Drug and Therapeutics Bulletin. Managing scarlet fever. BMJ. 2018 Aug 30;362:k3005.Full text  Abstract

54. Kotloff KL. Streptococcus group A vaccines. In: Plotkin SA, Orenstein WA, Offit PA, et al, eds. Plotkin's vaccines. 7th ed. 2018. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier;1039-45.

55. ClinicalTrials.gov. A trial of a peptide-based group A streptococcal (GAS) vaccine candidate in healthy individuals. Nov 2022 [internet publication].Full text

56. Reynolds S, Pandey M, Dooley J, et al. Preclinical safety and immunogenicity of Streptococcus pyogenes (Strep A) peptide vaccines. Sci Rep. 2021 Jan 8;11(1):127.Full text  Abstract

57. Eskandari S, Good MF, Pandey M. Peptide-protein conjugation and characterization to develop vaccines for group A streptococcus. Methods Mol Biol. 2021;2355:17-33. Abstract

58. Carapetis JR, Steer AC, Mulholland EK, et al. The global burden of group A streptococcal diseases. Lancet Infect Dis. 2005 Nov;5(11):685-94. Abstract

59. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Jun 2022 [internet publication].Full text

60. Sartelli M, Guirao X, Hardcastle TC, et al. 2018 WSES/SIS-E consensus conference: recommendations for the management of skin and soft-tissue infections. World J Emerg Surg. 2018 Dec 14;13:58.Full text  Abstract

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62. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia (community-acquired): antimicrobial prescribing. Sep 2019 [internet publication].Full text

63. Randolph AG, McCulloh RJ. Pediatric sepsis: important considerations for diagnosing and managing severe infections in infants, children, and adolescents. Virulence. 2014 Jan 1;5(1):179-89.Full text  Abstract

64. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. Sep 2017 [internet publication].Full text

65. Weiss SL, Peters MJ, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign international guidelines for the management of septic shock and sepsis-associated organ dysfunction in children. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2020 Feb;21(2):e52-e106.Full text  Abstract

66. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Meningitis (bacterial) and meningococcal septicaemia in under 16s: recognition, diagnosis and management. Feb 2015 [internet publication].Full text

67. Powell J, Wilson JA. An evidence-based review of peritonsillar abscess. Clin Otolaryngol. 2012 Apr;37(2):136-45. Abstract

68. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Acute rheumatic fever: information for clinicians.​ Jun 2022 [internet publication].Full text

69. Kumar RK, Antunes MJ, Beaton A, et al. Contemporary diagnosis and management of rheumatic heart disease: implications for closing the gap: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2020 Nov 17;142(20):e337-57.Full text  Abstract

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