IPEDS graduation rates have become de facto means for higher education accountability in the United States, used by the federal government, state and local agencies, non-profits and media to compare and rank institutions. IPEDS uses a limited subset of students, as well as an institutional perspective to measure graduation rate. Under this model, the 40% of college students who transfer during their college career are counted as failures because they opt to take alternative, multi-institutional pathways to completion. Failure to consider all student pathways misrepresents actual student outcomes, and represents a flawed system of accountability. This study introduces a student outcome model that distinguishes between institutionally-focused graduation rates and student-focused completion rates. This model was applied to a sample of first-time, full time students from eleven public institutions in the North Dakota University System. Research showed that an alternative student-centric model can successfully measure student outcomes. Consideration of alternative pathways to completion increased the mean measure of positive student outcomes by 20%, ranging from 15-30% across institutions. This research provides theoretical, research, and practical implications for reconsideration for how student success is measured, reported, and studied. An alternative student-focused model of completion offers better research outcomes for studies that were previously limited as they were based on an inadequate definition of student success. Research and theories regarding how factors influence student outcomes can be reframed to include alternative pathways to completion, providing a more comprehensive understanding of students who matriculate and graduate from a single institution, those who transfer and graduate from other institutions, and those who fail to persist to degree. When consideration for alternative pathways to degree is measured and valued, it has potential to affect higher education practice by creating a focus on not only attempting to ensure student fit within an institution, but if fit is lacking, ensuring that the practices, policies, and other supports are in place so that students can transfer and complete at another institution. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://bibliotheek.ehb.be:2222/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]