Describes a 10-step process for analyzing danger as a way of reducing the chance that an accident will happen, or minimizing its consequences to acceptable and recoverable levels. Factors that can inhibit the process include inappropriate attribution, relaxed concentration, rushing to maintain a schedule, group or peer pressure, and poor judgment.…

Tacit knowledge is a generally unarticulated, preconscious form of knowledge that forms a basis for human judgment and decision making. Tacit knowledge is acquired primarily through experience, usually observation of and working with "qualified" teachers or mentors. Tacit knowledge may also be described as "practical," that is,…

Small-group development is an important aspect of adventure therapy. Supplementing knowledge of sequential stages of group development with knowledge concerning within-stage nonsequential development yields a richer understanding of groups. Integrating elements of the individual counseling relationship (working alliance, transference, and real…

Basic concepts of experiential learning theory are presented to assist camp directors in choosing knowledgeable staff and developing successful adventure programs. These concepts include assessment of learner (camper) readiness, activity sequencing, learning cycle, comfort zone, activity framing, task goals versus process goals, and five stages of…

A review of research in cognitive and social psychology reveals the importance of situation assessment in the development of decision-making expertise. A naturalistic training model is presented for outdoor leaders that includes training for ill-structured problems, a heavy workload, time stress, and high stakes, as well as multiple players and…

Decision making by outdoor adventure educators revolves around balancing risk and competence. A model of outdoor adventure decision making is presented that draws on naturalistic decision-making processes and emphasizes the importance of situational recognition and prior experience. Leaders draw key information from the natural environment,…

This paper describes the competencies in the domain of human interaction that are required of leaders in various outdoor adventure programs. These programs may be grouped on a continuum from recreational outdoor adventure to primary (adventure) therapy. In the middle of the continuum, educational, enrichment, and adjunctive (adventure) therapy…

This paper outlines a model for assessing and managing psychological depth in outdoor and experiential group work, and presents two case studies of the complexity of such management in real life. The model contains eight levels of emotional risk and presents four criteria for assessing the level to which a particular event or discussion may lead…

A communication and problem-solving model is presented for individuals who lead extended field-based courses. The model focuses on the positive aspects of a situation and on encouraging individuals to accept responsibility for their behavioral choices. The four steps in the model are establishing rapport, what needs to change, where are we going,…

Outdoor leaders with sound judgment can gather many specific experiences, induce them into a collection of general concepts, store these as memory maps in the mind, later recall the general concepts as needed, and deduce a specific prediction from them. Proposes that evaluative reflection after a judgment is made is the component missing from most…

Traditional ethics are founded on unquestioned principles that transcend the limitations of a particular person. The result is that behavior is judged on how well people follow rules, not on how well they treat one another. This essay contends that applying this patriarchal approach to teaching situations ignores the needs of students in…

Too much excitement leads to anxiety, resulting in the impetus to reduce stimuli. Adventure experience leaders, in their enthusiasm for challenge and self-discovery through adventure, may ignore those clients who exist in a state of anxiety. This warning is particularly salient in regards to captive populations, such as a school group in a…

A model of facilitating outdoor adventure groups that include people with and without disabilities is presented. Steps include developing a resource base, addressing personal attitudes and using appropriate language, obtaining information specific to client disabilities, designing individualized adaptations, implementing the program, and…

Presents a model of four levels of experience in training adventure education leaders: direct instruction, student interaction in class, technical skill development, and internships. Internships allow students to think for themselves and solve real-world problems while experiencing teaching on their own. Utilizing all levels increases student…