Successful hiring, training, and pairing or grouping of staff requires administrators to consider the relationship between their programs' goals and the specific outdoor leadership skills of individual leaders. Authors have divided outdoor leadership skills into a three-category structure, and models of outdoor leadership have focused on skills…

Participation in outdoor education is underpinned by a learner's ability to acquire skills in activities such as canoeing, bushwalking and skiing and consequently the outdoor leader is often required to facilitate skill acquisition and motor learning. As such, outdoor leaders might benefit from an appropriate and tested model on how the learner…

Outdoor leaders function in naturalistic decision-making contexts and may be influenced by personal, social, and environmental factors in making critical decisions in the field. The experience level of the outdoor instructor is posited as a critical variable in the development of his/her decision-making and overall judgment. This research measures…

Responses of 75 expert outdoor leaders from Canada and the United States concerning leadership in 12 hypothetical backpacking scenarios provided partial support for a theory that predicted probability of leadership style (democratic, autocratic, or abdicratic) based on favorability of conditions, task orientation, and relationship orientation.…

Describes a 10-step process for analyzing danger as a way of reducing the chance that an accident will happen, or minimizing its consequences to acceptable and recoverable levels. Factors that can inhibit the process include inappropriate attribution, relaxed concentration, rushing to maintain a schedule, group or peer pressure, and poor judgment.…

Defines the concept of leadership. Reviews different theories of leadership and how they relate to outdoor leadership. The Conditional Outdoor Leadership Theory is a new approach to leadership based on applying the appropriate leadership style according to importance of task, group relationship, and level of conditional favorability. (LP)

Tacit knowledge is a generally unarticulated, preconscious form of knowledge that forms a basis for human judgment and decision making. Tacit knowledge is acquired primarily through experience, usually observation of and working with "qualified" teachers or mentors. Tacit knowledge may also be described as "practical," that is,…

In this paper I discuss some of the strengths and weaknesses of two different approaches to teaching motor skills to students in outdoor education and outdoor recreation settings. Using acronyms to describe their stages: DEDICT is a six step, direct instructional model that some outdoor leaders may already be familiar with; and FERAL is my…

A study found that male and female co-leaders of wilderness camping trips were very aware of stereotypes of male and female leadership roles. Sometimes leaders deliberately performed stereotypical tasks and roles of the opposite sex, but tasks and roles generally resulted from preferences, necessity, or participant expectations. The D-R model of…

Presents a problem-solving model for outdoor group leaders. Describes assessment, analytical and creative phases of the model, and emphasizes the importance of experience-based judgment. Discusses ways of providing experiential problem-solving opportunities in outdoor leadership preparation programs. (SV)

A leadership simulation model, patterned after the avalanche simulator used by the United States Forest Service and applicable within a variety of field situations (outdoor camps, church groups, commercial enterprises) can augment the development and observation of outdoor leaders. The model includes both a broad base of practitioner inputs and an…

Small-group development is an important aspect of adventure therapy. Supplementing knowledge of sequential stages of group development with knowledge concerning within-stage nonsequential development yields a richer understanding of groups. Integrating elements of the individual counseling relationship (working alliance, transference, and real…

Basic concepts of experiential learning theory are presented to assist camp directors in choosing knowledgeable staff and developing successful adventure programs. These concepts include assessment of learner (camper) readiness, activity sequencing, learning cycle, comfort zone, activity framing, task goals versus process goals, and five stages of…

The novelty and challenge of the wilderness, often cited as the basis for growth, can also precipitate emotional crises. Leaders should help the participant restore equilibrium through empathic listening and emotional support. If that fails, a model is presented for inhibiting the escalation of aggression or violence. Defusing and debriefing after…

A review of research in cognitive and social psychology reveals the importance of situation assessment in the development of decision-making expertise. A naturalistic training model is presented for outdoor leaders that includes training for ill-structured problems, a heavy workload, time stress, and high stakes, as well as multiple players and…