This article traces the development of the concept and roles of literacy in Western civilization. Current concern about declining literacy in American students is discussed historically in terms of (1) rising literacy standards; (2) applying the standards and tastes of traditional elites to the larger population; and (3) the perennial…

A review of the development of literacy in American national life provides both a picture of two centuries during which the strong association of literacy with mainstream cultural values was largely unexamined and unchallenged, and a realization that illiteracy is inextricably related to problems of discrimination and alienation in the workplace,…

Emphasis on adult literacy education in the United States began in the first decade of the twentieth century, which was characterized by heavy immigration from countries whose populations were not uniformly educated. Special attention was paid to adult literacy during times of crisis such as World War I and II when it was learned that many adults…

By the early nineteenth century, religion and social necessity had driven literacy in western Europe and in the United States from an overall level below 20% to about 50% of all men in a little more than two centuries; women had benefited as well. In the middle of the nineteenth century, the state entered the business of education on a large…

Reviews Experience Mayhew's book, "Indian Converts" (1727) and changing scholarly interpretations of literacy effects on Native Americans living on Martha's Vineyard. Traces the history of the Mayhew missionary family from 1641 to the 1720s and the establishment of the Indian Library. Examines the cultural implications of literacy and…

Discusses the history of Russian literacy from Kievan Rus, through the Muscovite period, the Imperial period, and the postrevolutionary Soviet Union. Presents tables of literacy levels for various periods. Discusses evidence, theories, and problems with historians' assumptions. Concludes that, until recently, little impetus existed for the bulk of…