This study analyzes the effect of age-based retention on school achievement at different stages of education. I estimate an instrumental variable model, using the predicted probability of retention given month of birth as an instrument, while simultaneously accounting for the effect of month of birth on maturity at the time of testing. The…

The article explores information processing models of spelling performance and argues that an adequate theory of spelling processes must include: (1) qualitative changes in performance as a function of maturation that underlie development of automaticity; (2) transactional development of spelling-related knowledge structures and efficient…

This study examined antecedents to early patterned alcohol and tobacco use and marijuana experimentation between ages 11 and 16 for an at-risk male sample. Findings suggested that family, peer, and child characteristics were inextricably connected within an ecology of development. A structural equation prediction model suggested a higher order…