One physical science topic that is difficult for middle school students is the transfer of thermal energy: Research indicates many have trouble understanding that thermal energy naturally transfers from the "warmer" object to the "colder" object until both objects reach the same temperature (Driver et al. 1994; Keeley, Eberle, and Tugel 2007).…

"The National Science Education Standards" direct science educators to employ inquiry as a basic teaching strategy, and to place more emphasis on understanding student needs, abilities, and interests, and actively engaging in scientific investigations. Although they generally accept this emphasis as desirable, educators--particularly new…