When a person encounters a problem, the character, form, and content of his or her response provides psychologists with useful and interesting information about processes of challenge and their relationship to intellectual development. In essence, challenge is a developing relationship that is defined on the one hand by objective factors (a person…

Describes two classroom activities that introduce critical-thinking skills into social studies instruction. One is a debate, followed by position papers, on the contribution of Christopher Columbus. The other is a simulation of a Constitutional Amendment conference. Discusses which parts of the lessons specifically focus on critical-thinking…

Discusses teaching styles exhibited by two different history teachers. Describes both teaching styles as epistemological representations, although one consists of a passive approach while the other employs active teacher involvement. Stresses each teacher's use of primary sources to help students see both sides of issues and critically analyze…