Outdoor experiential education has often been critiqued for its White, male, middle/upper-class, able-bodied history, thereby causing professionals and programs to consider issues of social justice. This state of knowledge paper will review the literature on social and environmental justice, identify gaps in current social justice literature and…

Uses the scenario of a women's adventure therapy trip to illustrate theoretical and practical information about "basic" therapeutic communication skills with participants in outdoor adventure settings. Discusses gender-based language style (women's "tentative" language), issues of physical and emotional safety, a philosophical…

This paper outlines management guidelines for outdoor adventure pursuits based on analysis of accident case studies in the literature. Managing risk, to a large degree, involves managing human errors related to natural environmental hazards. The knowledge needed to manage risk may be gained through personal experience (the most dangerous way),…

Summarizes theories of group development encompassing the stages of orientation, conflict, integration, achievement, and breakup. Relates group development stages to leadership styles and the leader's relative concern for dimensions of task and relationship. Applies the five-stage model of group development to the progress of groups involved in…

This paper focuses on group dynamics and introduces the use of initiative activities as a means of facilitating a more cohesive group experience in outdoor programs. Specific topics addressed and defined include: (1) curative factors of groups (universality, didactic learning, altruism, socialization, peer learning, group cohesiveness); (2) stages…

Defines the concept of leadership. Reviews different theories of leadership and how they relate to outdoor leadership. The Conditional Outdoor Leadership Theory is a new approach to leadership based on applying the appropriate leadership style according to importance of task, group relationship, and level of conditional favorability. (LP)

Over 70 years ago, female leaders in organized camping, the only form of outdoor experiential education then available, shaped the meaning of professionalism and controlled organizational structures and policies. Their achievement is paradigmatic of women's professional struggles in the outdoor pursuits professions in this century. This book…

Making errors can be a salutary learning experience. The problem in outdoor adventure education is to protect the error makers from real harm, which requires careful structuring of the learning situation. Discusses error limits, how much error correction is appropriate, involving participants in decision making, video playback and debriefing…

The experiences found in adventure programs often parallel the archetypes depicted in mythological quests. Drawing on the work of Joseph Campbell, the stages and trials of adventure participants are compared to similar rites of passage and epic adventures experienced by heroes and heroines in epic literature and mythology. The basic pattern of…

This paper examines the long-term impact on public lands of human-powered adventure activities. These activities take individuals into federal- or state-owned wild areas to enjoy backpacking, hiking, camping, and a wide variety of sports. Trends in supply and demand for outdoor opportunities are explored. Factors influencing demand include growing…

Analyzes present trends in accidents occurring among groups engaged in outdoor or environmental education in England and Wales. Assesses the causes of the accidents and the qualifications of the group leaders. Provides statistics and examples of several incidents. Emphasizes the need for expert leadership to avoid hazards. Contains several tables…

Effective group leadership is not entirely about "good" or "bad" approaches, but rather the ability to choose an appropriate style for a particular situation. This paper examines three paradigms, or world views, that can influence the approach of a leader (facilitator, therapist, teacher) of adventure groups and gives examples…

Experiential educators are encouraged to include singing in their curriculum. Singing offers a dynamic form of creative engagement and can assist learners in taking risks in their learning and in active experimentation. As a holistic learning tool, singing engages the six capabilities that humans have for learning: physical, emotional, cognitive,…

Explains the preexperience, experience, and postexperience phases of seven teaching styles: dictated, prescribed, directed, consulted, interpreted, automated, and shared. The most effective and appropriate style suits the situation, fits the preferences of leader and clients, and results in appropriate client independence. Although no single best…

This paper reviews aspects of Canadian and U.S. law related to liability and negligence of outdoor programs and suggests strategies for risk management. To prove negligence, an individual injured in an outdoor program must prove that the outdoor leader had a duty of care to the participant, standards of care were breached, actual injury was…