This research described the retrospective formation of identity and manifestation of responsibility of four African-American female leaders who served as urban school principals. Cross (1971, 1991) determined that African-Americans undergo a four step process of identity development that he coined Nigrescence. Within these four stages of identity…

This mathematics achievement test for grades 7 and 8 is based on objectives identified in "Guidelines to Mathematics, 6-8." The test can be used as a criterion-referenced instrument, a diagnostic instrument, or an achievement instrument. Each test item is cross-referenced to the corresponding student behavioral objective in the above…

This paper draws on mathematics achievement data from Milwaukee middle school students to illustrate the value-added approach to estimating school performance. Value-added indicators differ from traditional attainment indicators such as average test scores in that they are designed to capture the contribution of schools to growth in student…