Educational policy in the United States is highly decentralized. While the federal government subsidizes education across the country, and despite federal initiatives such as the Common Core and the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers to establish national standards and assessments, most states maintain control over the…

This article examines whether questions embedded in geography textbooks address three components of spatial thinking: concepts of space, tools of representation, and processes of reasoning. A three-dimensional taxonomy of spatial thinking was developed and used to evaluate questions in four high school level geography textbooks. The results…