State assessment test scores in English language arts (ELA) and mathematics had continued to decline in a southern state in the United States over the last few years. The purpose of this quantitative study was to examine the difference in middle school ELA and mathematics test scores between students receiving instruction in virtual and face-to-face environments for 5 years. The study, grounded in the theoretical framework of opportunity to learn, investigated the difference in middle school ELA and mathematics test scores between students receiving instruction virtually and students receiving instruction in face-to-face (FTF) environments for one year. This quantitative, ex post facto causal-comparative study used t tests to analyze test scaled score data from a sample of approximately 300 middle school students. Large effect sizes definitively showed FTF learners outperformed virtual learners from 46.23 to 113.09 points depending on subject and year. The t tests revealed consistent advantages for FTF learning environments on ELA in all 5 years. Similar gaps exceeded 75 points for FTF students on math SCReady scaled scores for all 5 years. The results could inform policies on virtual versus FTF instruction to promote positive social change through improved student learning outcomes. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://bibliotheek.ehb.be:2222/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]