Islamophobia is a specific form of racism that targets Muslims in different ways (physically, psychologically, socially, educationally, and politically) at different times and in different places. The purpose of this study is to review the meanings of Islamophobia, its manifestation in western societies, and its negative effects on Muslim…

In the United States, African-American students often face challenges that arise from structural stigma, which can inhibit their ability to learn and grow in the classroom and in their daily lives. Structural stigma, along with centuries of racist attitudes and policies, can impede student progress and is a challenge for policymakers, business…