Traditionally serving expatriate elites, international schools now increasingly cater to local middle-class families in developing countries. With the industry's explosive growth, attention turns to the role of expatriate teachers in preserving the institutional legitimacy of non-traditional international schools. However, expatriate teachers'…

This systematic review presents the first synthesis of the scientific literature on estimating school and teacher/class effects on student academic performance using random-effects (RE) models with three or more levels. The review delves into the theoretical framework underpinning the estimation of educational effects, the associated statistical…