Developers of high stakes criterion-referenced tests are urged to formulate test tasks so that efficient instruction can promote student mastery of the domain. Time-on-task has been promoted by instructional psychologists as preferable to test teaching. (DWH)

Fewer competencies should be used as the organizing structure for teacher education programs, since all relevant topics cannot be covered thoroughly anyway. One variant of an outcomes-focused approach to teacher education is an objectives-oriented strategy. The criterion is not what the teacher does but what happens to pupils as a consequence of…