This study examined the effect of different types of loss of control on the quality and quantity of the frustration response in 4- to 6-month-old infants. To establish an expectancy, all infants received 4 minutes of contingency training in which infants were presented with slides and music after they performed a pulling response with their right…

Two experiments examined how different frustration contexts affect the instrumental and emotional responses of 4- to 5-month-olds. Both experiments showed that arm responses increased when the contingent stimulus was lost or reduced but decreased when control of the stimulus was lost under noncontingency. Facial expressions of anger, but not…

Examined facial expressions in relation to cognition in infants 2 to 8 months of age. A total of 48 subjects received an audiovisual stimulus contingent on arm movement, whereas 32 infants did not control the stimulus. Infants in the contingent group expressed greater interest and joy during learning and greater anger during extinction. (RH)