Four major paths of academic coordination in higher education are detailed: by bureaucracy, profession, politics, and the market. All four are involved in all national academic systems, but in widely varying strengths and combinations. Each performs needed functions, and policy becomes a matter of balance and mutual adjustment. (Author/JMD)

This paper is a draft of a chapter to appear in "Academic Power: Patterns of Authority in Seven National Systems of Higher Education," edited by John H. Van de Graaff. It traces the historical development of universities in Italy with emphasis on the relationships among students, professors, and towns. Consideration is also given to…

Basic elements of the higher education system are considered, along with variations across nations (the United Kingdom, Sweden, Japan, Italy, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Australia, Canada, the United States, Poland, Yugoslavia, Mexico, and Thailand). Three basic elements of the organization of higher education system are identified:…