A Use-Oriented Clothing Economy? Preliminary Affirmation for Sustainable Clothing Consumption Alternatives
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to understand how fashion-oriented females in two different countries evaluate three use-oriented product–service systems (PSS): clothing consultancy, renting and swapping. A mixed-method approach was utilized, including focus group interviews and a questionnaire. Both countries exhibited a higher level of interest in use-oriented PSS schemes than product-oriented offerings. Positive evaluations of use-oriented PSS included the ability to reduce excess consumption via smarter purchasing, becoming more knowledgeable about personal style and fit, and enhancing creativity with items already owned. Participants also positively evaluated the ability for some PSS concepts to satisfy their desire for change and social support or interaction as well as to save money and increase product satisfaction. Negative evaluations included lack of trust in the provider related to issues such as quality, maintenance and hygiene of shared goods as well as skepticism about the business model's viability. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment
Introduction
As waste in our industrialized society continues to expand, the clothing industry is increasingly under pressure to reduce its reliance on a production–consumption model that is materially based and propelled by the concept of fashion. This industrial system perpetuates a perception of product disposability, driven by the ample availability of cheap, low quality clothing goods (Allwood et al., 2006; Bianchi and Birtwistle, 2010; Birtwistle and Moore, 2007). Sustainable consumption will require consumers to buy less, use products longer and produce less waste (Tilikidou and Delistavrou, 2004). Product–service systems (PSS) may provide an effective framework, utilizing business models such as renting, upgrading and redesigning as well as strategies that promote a more engaged consumption process such as participatory design or consultancy (Tukker, 2004). PSS seek to dematerialize the production–consumption cycle by reducing overall reliance on natural resources by transitioning to more service-oriented consumption (Heiskanen and Jalas, 2003; Tukker, 2004). Bundling services with products is not a new idea, but the potential to utilize services to support long-term use of and engagement with clothing products to enhance sustainability holds much promise.
This paper examines the potential for a use-oriented clothing economy from the consumer's perspective, providing evaluations of three use-oriented PSS models: clothing consultancy, renting and swapping. A mixed-method study was conducted with fashion-oriented females in Finland and the U.S. who frequently shop for fashion clothing. In the following paper, a brief background is provided about sustainable consumption as well as PSS theory and implementation constraints. Finally, the research methods, the study's quantitative and qualitative findings and implications are explained.
Background
Consuming Less, Living Well: the Sustainable Consumption Agenda
Jackson (2005) argues that the current contemporary scale of consumption not only damages the environment but also degrades our own psychological and social well-being. Thus, the sustainable consumption agenda is important as it aims not only to decrease environmental impact but also promote the capacity to live better via consuming less (Jackson, 2005). This agenda calls for change in current consumption practices, such as consumption of high value services instead of resource intensive products (Sustainable Consumption Roundtable, 2006). To meet this goal, fundamental efforts are needed to reach the ‘great transformation', a material to use-oriented economy, which will require responsiveness to consumer lifestyles, values and everyday practices, the chief barriers to a significant cultural shift (Billharz and Cerny, 2012 2012).
In the rapidly expanding literature about sustainable consumption, a dominant approach has been to portray this concept in a social–psychological light, in which attitudes and norms form a set of indicators that can be used to predict a variety of behaviors such as purchasing, recycling or disposal. Though popular, it is not the approach taken in this paper. Many authors now argue that this attitude–behavior perspective neglects the dominance of lifestyle and daily routine and the social contexts in which these patterns evolve (Dobers and Stannegård, 2005; Mylan, 2015; Spaargaren, 2003). Individuals are inconsistent, their attitudes predicting specific behaviors in one context and contradicting it in another (Spaargaren, 2003). If we treat the individual as a vacuum, we ignore the inherent and dialectic relationship one has with one's social structure, a critical factor to understand the implementation of a new culture. This context is often treated as an external variable, such as the oft-utilized theory of planned behavior by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975). Dobers and Stannegård (2005) argue that most sustainable consumption research has focused on the consumers' point of purchase behavior rather than the process of identity creation and the ever-evolving construction of lifestyle. When consumption is viewed as a process, human needs, ambitions and interactions come to light. At the center of inquiry, practices that are shared by other human agents and the specific social contexts in which these practices are situated are illuminated, providing rich information about what may shift consumption practices in the collective (Spaargaren, 2003). For instance, practice theorists focus on the routines of daily life, the practice itself being the focus of analysis. In this vein, a business may play a role not by educating individuals to transform their consumption practices but by revolutionizing the practice itself (Mylan, 2015).
During the Sustainable Consumption Roundtable (2006), participating consumers highlighted the importance of non-material issues in sustainable consumption. Consumers emphasized health, safety and security issues as important as well as the need for more time to invest in good relationships with family and friends, the foundation for a good life and sustainable lifestyle. Innovations for sustainable consumption must be implemented in step with these human desires while preserving economic stability and environmental health (Sustainable Consumption Roundtable, 2006). Arguably, the success of a sustainable PSS hinges on its capability to deliver human satisfaction via eco-efficient solutions (Vezzoli et al., 2014) that are responsive to social values and groups (Spaargaren, 2003).
PSS
PSS seek to replace personal ownership and excess material consumption with utilization options (Briceno and Stagl, 2006), providing a combination of tangible products and intangible services that better meet needs by focusing on the consumer's end desire rather than a product (Mont, 2002; Tukker and Tischner, 2006). A PSS is characterized by direct and long-term contact with customers, a collaborative network to support the service supply chain, and low capital intensity. A properly implemented PSS model has the potential to decrease the total number of products consumed by introducing alternative scenarios for product use (Mont, 2002).
Various PSS business models have emerged (Reim et al., 2015). Product-oriented services sell a product with product-related services that can add value to the sale, such as repair/maintenance or return/exchange plans or customized design via participatory processes. Tukker (2004) argues that product-oriented PSS reflect the least radical but most easily implemented model for consumer products. Use-oriented services, on the other hand, focus on the use of existing products in new and different ways, which may be characterized by a lack of personal ownership. The company may retain ownership and the responsibility for the product's upkeep, which may be advantageous for the company (Welford et al., 1998). The potential for dematerialization increases with the decrease in personal ownership, the increase in material and product use intensity, and the extent to which the company can control the product's longevity (Tukker, 2004). The potential contribution of PSS to sustainability requires the disconnection of value from material consumption (Maxwell and van der Vorst, 2003; Mont, 2002), and, though product-oriented PSS may be more easily implemented, use-oriented PSS represent a more significant opportunity for meaningful environmental impact reduction (Tukker, 2004; Vezzoli and Manzini, 2008).
Although examples of implemented PSS in the clothing industry are currently limited, some use-oriented approaches have emerged recently. Fashion libraries are good examples of collaborative consumption and ownerless use. The Albright Fashion Library in New York lends clothing, shoes and other accessories on a membership basis, members borrowing products for two weeks for a reasonable fee. The collection grows and changes each week, holding member interest. Mud Jeans from the Netherlands offers a one-year lease contract for jeans made of organic and recycled cotton and produced according to socially responsible standards and also offers a repair service. Similar schemes such as product swaps have also emerged, such as the Clothing Swap Meet Ups in New York City, where a fee is paid to swap items, which typically includes a social component. Consultancy services also provide an option to increase the use longevity of clothing by providing advice for utilization of items already owned, such as ClosetDash, where the customer can purchase an hourly session, receiving one-on-one styling advice in person or by video conferencing.
Business Model Innovation and Sustainable Consumption
Business ventures define the scope and scale of demand as well as the environmental consequences of such (Michaelis, 2003). To date, the business sector, with mass media and government affirmation, has accentuated neo-classical economics (Birkin et al., 2009) and tenets such as ‘material prosperity, individual success, technological progress, and consumer choice' (Michaelis, 2003, p. 915), with which the clothing industry is complicit. Obviously, business is a powerful conduit for changed societal behavior, as the close interaction with constituents is influential (Welford et al., 1998). This line of thinking has given rise to concepts such as eco innovation, efficiency and corporate social responsibility (CSR) (Welford et al., 1998), all of which have largely failed to manifest sustainable development (Bocken et al., 2014). Birkin et al. (2009) discuss the integration of sustainable development into CSR practices in industry. In a study of corporations, the researchers found that initiatives to drive environmental performance are still generally motivated by cost and that these efforts do not alter a business's orientation toward sustainable development. On the other hand, and far more challenging, factors such as industry collaboration and stakeholder involvement (in and outside the firm), which prompt trust and sharing and the development of social values, more meaningfully support sustainable development, particularly when efforts become responsive to local culture and context.
Similarly, Bocken et al. (2014) advocate that the linchpin for sustainable business models today is to identify the mechanism of revenue generation that may yield concurrent social and ecological gains. Here, innovation hinges on a different value proposition not only to the consumer but for every stakeholder involved in the supply chain, which will require a revolution in how we think about business (Bocken et al., 2014). For instance, in service-oriented business models, one must consider a healthy balance of environmental impact reduction while increasing the quality in goods as well as employment opportunities, which has ethical and social considerations that go beyond environmental evaluations (Welford et al., 1998). Importantly, PSS fall into a social archetype of business models for sustainability, particularly use-oriented schemes, where the offering is designed to change consumer behavior via social innovation. For success, the consumer needs (and societal needs) must concur with manufacturing needs. Then, consumption patterns may be altered via reduced need for ownership: its sustainability dependent on the ability to reduce product volume and create innovative waste elimination methods (Bocken et al., 2014).
Finally, another important consideration very applicable to fashion goods such as clothing is the aestheticization of consumer goods and the role this plays in constraining or promoting sustainable consumption via business. Dobers and Stannegård (2005) argue that the normative and technical interests in industry have dominated, neglecting the important role of design and aesthetics. In the 1990s, design became a key factor in co-producing lifestyles via experiences created by the producer and consumer: symbolism becoming much more important, design becoming part of consumption. Products and services and their consumption became aestheticized. Design artfully portrayed products and services, their meaning, the associated lifestyles and the brands behind them, becoming a chief driver of the perpetual search for newness (fashions, styles, experiences etc.). Consumer goods are now used to produce lives and express individuality. Thus, aesthetics cannot be ignored when considering the goals of business innovation for sustainable development (Dobers and Stannegård, 2005). This is an argument similar to that of Walker (2006), who has been a proponent of using the concept of fashion to attract new interest and energy around sustainability. Moreover, aesthetic consumption does not necessarily command materiality (Dobers and Stannegård, 2005; Walker, 2006).
PSS and Consumer Adoption
A number of factors have been discussed regarding the orientation of the current economic system and business environment that seemingly make the proliferation of business innovation for sustainable consumption a not impossible but distant fantasy. When considering an innovative approach such as a use-oriented clothing economy, it is worth noting how these factors may further influence consumer perception and adoption. Consumers become married to existing solutions and socio-cultural regimes, making the implementation of more radical concepts more difficult to accept (Verganti, 2009). The consumer may balk at the absence of ownership, not fully appreciating the payoff in instances of inconvenience. When there is a delay in acquisition, the customer may perceive this as a sacrifice (Catulli, 2012; Tukker and Tischner, 2006), especially consumers who shop for clothing to fulfill emotional needs (Armstrong et al., 2015). Products designed for increased quality and durability may evidence a diminished level of comfort for the fashion-oriented consumer (Tukker and Tischner, 2006). Clothing is used to express one's own identity, the ownership of which can have strong emotional meaning for which a service may not adequately substitute. When product ownership is important for status or a sense of control, the more functional offerings of a PSS may seem unattractive. Moreover, consumers who have become attached to the frequent consumption of a product, as is common with fashion goods, may resist PSS schemes (Hirschl et al., 2003).
Other more practical considerations include barriers to trust such as quality issues, durability and general maintenance of products (Rexfelt and Ornas, 2009), issues particularly salient in the context of clothing. Consumers may also be skeptical about the motives of the company to offer such services and may have limited confidence in the company to deliver the services successfully (Armstrong et al., 2015; Rexfelt and Ornas, 2009). Indeed, the complexity of the service offer is an obstacle for building trust. Reim et al. (2015) recently punctuated the importance of contractual clarity in service delivery, clearly outlining the rights and liabilities involved in service implementation and barring against risk. Some use-oriented PSS models, such as product renting and swapping, encourage consumers to share products where issues such as the hygiene of used goods can be problematic (Catulli, 2012), especially for clothing products worn close to the skin. In sum, consumers may not readily acknowledge the advantages of PSS, their acceptance largely correlated with perceived monetary benefits as well as the time investment or emotional sacrifices that may be required (Rexfelt and Ornas, 2009), especially for clothing products, where self-identity, fashion trends and value for money are the chief considerations for new purchases (Niinimäki, 2010; Fisher et al., 2008).
Research Methods
The primary research objective of this study was to understand how fashion-oriented females in two different countries evaluate use-oriented PSS concepts: clothing consultancy, renting and swapping. A mixed-method approach was utilized, including a series of focus group interviews and a questionnaire completed during the interviews, conducted in Finland and the US.
Sample
Female consumers are generally more involved in fashion clothing products (O'Cass, 2004). Being female and fashion oriented has also been correlated to higher rates of clothing acquisition as well as disposal (Lang et al., 2013). Thus, women self-identifying as highly interested and involved in fashion-related consumption were recruited for the study from two different countries in an effort to assemble a representative sample. In Finland, participants were recruited in a large metropolitan area. In the U.S., participants were recruited in a rural university community. A total of 101 women from the two countries participated in one of 17 focus groups. Eight focus groups were conducted in Finland with 52 participants, ages 24–66 (24 age 24–39; 28 age 40+). Approximately 70% of the sample had a college degree and a little over 40% reported earning more than 40 000€ annually. Nine focus groups were conducted in the U.S. with 49 participants, ages 25 to 87 (27 age 24–39; 22 age 40+). Approximately 84% of the sample groups had a college degree or higher and 65% reported earning more than $40 000US annually.
Data Collection and Analysis
In previous studies, hypothetical scenarios have been utilized to elicit contextual feedback from consumers about PSS (Rexfelt and Ornas, 2009). Because the research objectives were to explore contextual issues and to collaborate with consumers to identify PSS models with the greatest potential, the researchers chose to utilize this methodology, developing a series of hypothetical clothing PSS scenarios to elicit responses from participants. Tukker's (2004) PSS prototypes (e.g. product oriented, use oriented) were used to guide the basic development of scenarios and then each scenario was made more specific by utilizing sustainable fashion industry examples (e.g. clothing libraries, styling services). Three product-oriented and three use-oriented PSS scenarios were explored (Table 1).
| Scenario | PSS type | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | PO | repair/redesign |
| 2 | PO | customized, participatory design |
| 3 | PO | make it yourself |
| 4 | UO | consultancy |
| 5 | UO | renting |
| 6 | UO | swapping |
- PO, product oriented; UO, use oriented.
- This retail concept seems realistic.
- I am interested in shopping at this retail concept.
The questionnaire also asked for additional comments about each scenario, and these comments were later integrated into the qualitative data analysis. Statistical analyses in SPSS were conducted to compare the group's level of interest and realistic perception for the two types of PSS models as well as to determine country differences.
An interview protocol for the focus group interviews was developed, initially written in English and then translated into Finnish. During the focus group interviews, a moderator (one of the researchers) read each scenario. Participants were given a few minutes to provide responses to the questionnaire. Then the floor was open for discussion in response to moderator prompts: ‘What do you like about this retail scenario? What appeals to you about it? What do you not like about this retail scenario? Are there changes or modifications that may be made to this retail concept that may make this scenario more beneficial to you?'.
The interviews were transcribed and the Finnish interview transcriptions translated into English. Utilizing NVivo 10 analysis software, a qualitative content analysis was conducted to identify emergent themes describing participant evaluations, coded into two major categories: positive and negative evaluations of each PSS concept. For consistency, analysis of all interview transcriptions from both countries was led by one researcher and reviewed by the research team periodically during analysis to ensure validity.
Results
Questionnaire
With multiple dependent variables a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was deemed appropriate to conduct a comparison of the two countries on interest in patronage and realistic perception of each PSS model. Results indicate no significant differences on the level of interest in patronage for Finn participants when compared with US participants. However, Finn participants indicated a higher level of realistic perception in regards to product-oriented scenarios such as repair (F(1, 95) = 12.685, p < 0.001) while no difference was found in the realistic perception of any other scenarios.
To further study the level of interest and realistic perception of the two categories of PSS models (product and use oriented), four new variables were computed based on the existing value of interest and realistic perception for each scenario. The average mean of interest level and realistic perception of the three product-oriented PSS concepts (repair/redesign, custom/participatory and make-it-yourself) were computed respectively to create the two new variables for product-oriented PSS (PO-interest and PO-realistic). Similarly, the average mean of interest level and realistic perception of the three use-oriented PSS concepts (renting, swapping and consulting) were computed respectively to create the other two new variables for use-oriented PSS (UO-interest and UO-realistic). With the four new dependent variables, MANOVA was employed to compare the difference between the two countries on interest in patronage and realistic perception of the two categories of PSS concepts. There was a statistically significant difference in the four new variables between the two countries, F(4, 92) = 3.00, p < 0.05; Wilks' Λ = 0.885, partial η2 = 0.115. Results indicate that both the level of interest (F(1, 95) = 7.786, p < 0.006) and realistic perception (F(1, 95) = 8.553, p < 0.004) were higher in product-oriented models for Finn participants when compared with US participants. However, there were no significant differences on the level of interest (F(1, 95) = 0.028, p = 0.867) and realistic perception (F(1, 95) = 0.313, p = 0.577) of use-oriented models between the two countries.
A one-sample t-test is utilized when the data are from the same sample. Thus, to compare the difference between the two categories of PSS concepts on level of interest and realistic perception for each country, a one-sample t-test was conducted. Taken together, the two countries had a higher level of interest in (t = −3.105, p < 0.002) and realistic perception (t = −6.737, p < 0.000) of use-oriented PSS concepts (renting, swapping, consulting) than product-oriented (repair/redesign, custom/participatory, make-it-yourself ) concepts. When examining each country's level of interest in each category of PSS concepts, US participants were significantly more interested (t = −3.943, p < 0.001) in use-oriented concepts than product-oriented concepts while Finn participants had a similar interest level in use-oriented concepts as US participants and had a significantly higher interest in product-oriented models when compared with US participants (Table 2).
| Country | Item | Category | Mean | SD | t | p-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Two countries | Interest | Product oriented | 4.2619 | 1.1853 | −3.105** | 0.002 |
| Use oriented | 4.6337 | 1.1638 | ||||
| Realistic | Product oriented | 4.4227 | 1.0370 | −6.737*** | 0.000 | |
| Use oriented | 5.1320 | 0.9855 | ||||
| US | Interest | Product oriented | 3.9456 | 1.1594 | −3.943*** | 0.000 |
| Use oriented | 4.5986 | 1.1587 | ||||
| Realistic | Product oriented | 4.1293 | 1.0315 | −6.805*** | 0.000 | |
| Use oriented | 5.1837 | 1.0275 | ||||
| Finland | Interest | Product oriented | 4.5782 | 1.1361 | −0.545 | 0.588 |
| Use oriented | 4.6667 | 1.1790 | ||||
| Realistic | Product oriented | 4.7222 | 0.9635 | −2.596* | 0.013 | |
| Use oriented | 5.0833 | 0.9517 |
- * p < 0.05,
- ** p < 0.01,
- *** p < 0.001.
Notably, there was a borderline significant difference in interest in product-oriented scenarios such as repair (t = −2.232, p < 0.028) and custom design (t = −2.148, p < 0.034) for Finn participants when compared with US participants, while interest level in all other scenarios was similar in each country. Likewise, US participants also perceived the use-oriented PSS concepts as being more realistic (t = −3.562, p < 0.001), and though Finn participants had a similar level of realistic perception in use-oriented concepts, the level of realistic perception was higher for product-oriented models than use-oriented models when compared with US participants. This more realistic perception could be driven by the prevalence of such models in Finland, where these business models have become less common or more exclusive in the US in recent years.
Interview Themes
The interest level in use-oriented concepts compared with product-oriented concepts was an interesting and hopeful finding, as these models may hold the most promise in terms of dematerialization and the reduction of resource use for future clothing industry business. For this reason, the researchers have chosen to utilize this paper to explore the contextual issues related to use-oriented concepts at depth. The following provides a discussion of positive and negative participant evaluations that may impact a consumer's willingness to engage in such models, organized around the three use-oriented scenarios. Table 3 provides the overarching factors (listed on the left) discussed by participants in positive (top) and negative (bottom) ways, including notations of how specific contextual issues manifest within these factors across each of the use-oriented scenarios (listed on the right).
| Consultancy | Renting | Swapping | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Positive evaluations | |||
| Reduced consumption | Smarter, strategic purchasing | Good for clothing for special occasion or time in life | – |
| Reduced needless consumption | |||
| Increase wardrobe utilization | |||
| Enhance creativity with owned goods | |||
| Desire for change | Boredom | Way to experiment with something outside comfort zone | – |
| Seasonal transition | |||
| New identity | |||
| Social | ‘Shopping friend' provides social interaction | Timeshare rental good for young consumers – groups of friends | Camaraderie and community |
| ‘Personal trainer for clothing' boosts confidence | Sense of ‘adventure' – alternative consumption experience | ||
| Ideal for young consumers | |||
| Financial | Money saved via reduced or smart purchasing | Satisfy desire for change without costs | – |
| Try new styles/brands without investment or risk | |||
| Product satisfaction | Increased knowledge about fit/shape and clothing personality increases product satisfaction | – | – |
| Negative evaluations | |||
| Lack of trustin provider | Credibility and safety (US only) | Hygiene | Hygiene |
| Imposition on individuality | Quality | Quality | |
| Stylist–retailer connection – pressure to buy | ‘Price politics' | ||
| Business model | |||
| Ease of use | Time involved | Personal liability | Style and size selection |
| Access | Style and size selection | Need for categorization, theme etc. | |
| Less ideal for everyday clothing | |||
| Social | Privacy | Conflict about ownershipof rented goods | Competition for goods |
| Financial | High end only; celebrity | Inexpensive clothing too readily available for purchase to justify rental price + subscription fee | – |
| Need clear benefit-for-cost |
In this scenario, consultancy was described to participants as a styling service that may be accessed in-store or online where the customer could receive advice about how to continue to wear her purchases in new and different ways as well as how to increase the use of items she already owns. This service was proposed to also include the option of a home visit by the stylist. Many US participants were familiar with some online retail styling concepts. There were very few differences in participant evaluations of the scenario by country, with the exception of negative evaluations made by US participants in regards to credibility and safety.
Finn: There are a lot of times you look at your closet and you are like okay, ‘I am getting ready to switch out to my winter stuff but what do I really need to help it look more new but I don't want to get rid of everything'….
Finn: …If somebody just showed me ‘this could fit for you'. And ‘these ten pieces could be kind of key pieces for you, to which you can combine all the other garments you already own'.
US: I wonder how many times I even take my own daughter shopping when really, if I would spend that money and have somebody come to my house and go through her closet and say, 'oh what about if you wear this and this and this together and we don't really need new clothes'… we just need new ideas.
Another frequently mentioned theme was the potential for enhanced product satisfaction by using a consultant, becoming more knowledgeable about fit and personal style. Achieving a good fit on the body as well as the personality yields a higher level of product satisfaction, something a stylist may facilitate. Common challenges frequently cited among participants were a lack of knowledge about how to select items appropriate for different body shapes, height etc., particularly as one becomes older as well as a propensity to purchase items reflective of too many personalities.
Participants also discussed the financial benefit of this type of service, even if they were paying a consultancy fee, as it would help them refine their purchasing, and as one US participant put it ‘be directed in your shopping'. On the other hand, participants in both countries made many references to television programs that perpetuated a sense that these services were for high-end clientele or celebrities, and therefore associated the service with a high price point that may be inaccessible to average consumers. Some participants also discussed social aspects of the consultancy scheme. Many participants perceived the stylist role as akin to having a new friend, a ‘clothing coach' or ‘personal trainer for clothing', providing social interaction and also boosting one's self-confidence.
Finn: At least I wouldn't like it that somebody comes to my place and rakes around my wardrobe telling me to throw this and this away and then telling me to wear some ruffle shirt or something… I wouldn't like to have anybody defining how I should look like or what my personality is.
A US participant explained her experience on a website called Shoe Dazzle in which the online retailer utilized a styling quiz to identify an appropriate shoe selection to her, but none of the products proposed were consistent with her personal style. Some participants made suggestions about how this may be navigated, such as offering some type of match making service that allows the customer to choose a stylist who has a personal style comparable to her own or promoting styling services for specific style types.
Finn participants were very skeptical in instances where a stylist may be associated with a specific retailer, which was not mentioned as frequently by US participants. Notably, the researchers allowed participants to draw their own conclusions as to whether this service scenario stood alone or was purchased via a retailer. Most assumed the stylist was also a sales associate, as most styling services that exist currently are in connection with retail sales. Finn participants perceived they would feel obligated to purchase or would feel limited by the association with one retailer.
Other negative evaluations included ease of use, primarily due to the perceived time involved in a styling relationship and accessibility to the stylist. Many participants in both countries mentioned the possibility of an online styling service for convenience, whether the service was interactive or simply accessing prepared information.
US: I don't know that I would do it for ordinary clothes… I could see renting some really nice suit, gorgeous fabric… because I had to make a presentation to a bunch of big wigs….
US: Because you buy something, you take the tags off and you wear it once and you're like, ‘I wish I never bought this'. It's a way to try out something and realize, yeah I invested a little, but at least I'm not wasting my whole budget….
Participants discussed that in cases where fashion goods might ordinarily be economically inaccessible, this service seemed to provide a financial benefit, as renting allowed the consumer to experiment or use an item without the financial investment or risk. The financial benefit of this service for everyday clothing goods was not as clear.
One of the most audible points in these discussions was the cost–benefit value proposition, found in previous PSS studies (Heiskanen and Jalas, 2003; Mont, 2002; Rexfelt and Ornas, 2009) of renting versus buying readily available inexpensive fashion goods, making a rental service for everyday clothing seem unrealistic, especially when there could be an additional subscription fee. If the cost was the same, the participant preferred to buy.
Participants also discussed social aspects of the rental scheme that were both positive and negative. They readily perceived this scheme as most appropriate for a younger audience, especially when a ‘time share' rental component was considered for groups of friends, discussed far more frequently among Finn participants. One US participant affirmed that she was attracted to the ‘idea of being able to pay, just swap clothes, you pay one fee, you get to share it and then you are done… instead of you paying for it and your friend stealing it'. Both groups of participants were concerned about the primary ownership of items rented and shared by a group and conflicts that may arise about wearing frequency.
US: I just have hygiene concerns… how will they be handled after the first rental, when it comes back… after I have worn it so many different times, I don't know how the next person renting it is going to feel….
One US participant recommended grouping renters into cohorts, such as a ‘co-op' in which they could get to know each other and each other's habits while other participants emphasized the need for the service provider to assume responsibility for the cleaning and guaranteeing the sanitation of rental items rather than the customer being responsible.
US: If I'm interested in wearing something for the day-to-day use, I usually pick something that I really like and become attached to it. I would not like to use this for a certain time and then return it back.
In the swapping scenario, a fashion event concept was proposed in which tickets could be purchased to attend an evening of light hors d'oeuvres, beverages, live music and clothes swapping. Patrons would bring two clothing items to swap that were still stylish and in good condition. Unlike the other scenarios explored, where the primary focus was on clothing acquisition, participants were more skeptical about the logistics of this scheme, even if they found the social aspect attractive. Most participants were familiar with this idea, and some had participated in similar schemes involving clothing or related events such as a ‘cookie exchange' or ‘junk swap'. Participants perceived this concept being most appropriate for younger consumers, chiefly because of the social aspect and the novelty of the acquisition experience. Interestingly, some participants perceived this service as an ideal way to dispose of goods that were in good condition without the expectation of acquiring new items.
The most powerful theme discussed among participants about the swapping concept was the social and experiential aspect, evaluating the event positively as a place to find camaraderie and community with like others that they trust, and that this type of event or ‘clothes disco', as one Finn participant stated, focused around fashion consumption was intriguing. One US participant referred to it as ‘an adventure'.
The second most powerful theme in regards to swapping was a lack of trust in the provider. Concerns about quality and hygiene similar to those associated with the rental PSS were discussed again. Many participants were also hesitant about how their items would be valued fairly, as a Finn participant termed 'price politics'. Some participants were skeptical about how ‘stylish' and ‘in good condition' would be defined and regulated. Other participants were concerned about how they would be compensated if unable to find satisfactory items. Underpinning this discussion was a general confusion about how this would work as a business model, as many participants associated the concept with fundraising. One Finn participant suggested that one way to enhance the credibility of the service provider was to connect the swap event with some type of celebrity, such as a famous and trusted fashion blogger or professional stylist.
Other frequently cited concerns surrounded issues that complicate ease of use. As most participants evaluated this service positively for its social rather than consumptive value, many questioned the viability of this concept to offer enough variety and size availability to find things they really wanted or needed. Some suggested that organizing events around product categories (e.g. outdoor clothing, special occasion, accessories), by theme, or by fashion brand, specific size ranges and style or personality would ease this anxiety. As participants clearly struggled to see this service as a legitimate acquisition model, some discussed how this concept would require a higher level of engagement, a new approach that does not allow for the quick satisfaction of fashion newness. Rather, customers would have to think carefully and plan ahead.
Implications and Conclusion
The primary objective of this study was to understand how fashion-oriented females in two different countries evaluate a variety of use-oriented PSS concepts (clothing consultancy, renting and swapping), models with potential to transition the clothing industry from a product- to a use-oriented economy. Understanding behavior and preferences in a particular consumption domain (Spaargaren, 2003) can help us better understand behavioral patterns that dominate there and how social values may evolve (Dobers and Stannegård, 2005; Mylan, 2015). Though we may assume that clothing consumers are unwilling to relinquish the joy of personal ownership and excess accumulation of clothing goods, the current study found a higher level of interest in use-oriented versus product-oriented PSS concepts. This affirmation, however, comes with some contextual caveats that have important implications for designing sustainable clothing business initiatives that stimulate sustainable consumption.
Findings in this study suggest that these consumers positively perceived that purchasing less and utilizing what they already owned to a greater extent provided a mechanism for newness that was intrinsic. The service's ability to satisfy the desire for change, an important need in identity creation through clothing (Niinimäki, 2010), was a key selling point. The critical admonition is that what these consumers really want is an instrument to produce their identities and lifestyles, materially manifest or not. Central to this particular social group is an aesthetic experience with clothing. For instance, consultancy services may be utilized to increase smarter purchasing for fit and personal style as well as to enhance creativity. Currently, styling services such as US retailers Stitch Fix or Shoe Dazzle are associated with selling new products, for which research participants suggested that styling services be separated to reduce the pressure to buy new, putting the emphasis on gaining new and different ideas with what they already owned. Rental and swapping concepts were generally perceived to be most appropriate for a younger audience, ideal for those more frequently using clothing to make adjustments to their personal identity. These concepts would allow customers to experiment aesthetically without the expense and accumulation of unwanted goods.
It was clear among these fashion-oriented research participants that disposable fashion is a prevailing custom, tied to emotional satisfaction, symbolism etc. Mylan (2015) recently argued that, particularly in cases where meanings of the elements involved in consumption are being significantly altered, as in the case of a new method of acquisition and ownership of fashion goods, implementation of PSS will prove most difficult. For instance, some participants discussed how concepts such as swapping would reduce their ability to achieve a quick emotional high from an impulse purchase because these alternatives would require more time and planning (Catulli, 2012; Tukker and Tischner, 2006). Yet, Dobers and Stannegård (2005) have argued that, if aesthetics can be used to trap consumers in an unsustainable material cycle, it can likewise be used to produce a non-material experience that has a greater chance of achieving well-being. The levers of this experience in the clothing context appear to revolve around personal style, creativity and change. From a marketing standpoint, the implication here is to embed meaning, to portray rich imagery, to tell the story of an attractive lifestyle centered on novel use-oriented clothing schemes (Dobers and Stannegård, 2005). Mylan (2015) adds that the magic for retailers and marketers is to build strong linkages between current practices and the more efficient one. Many consumers already utilize retail styling businesses, but these services could be expanded, transitioning from acquisition of new fashion goods to reinvention and restyling of existing goods. Some research participants were attracted to the sense of adventure and social activity or camaraderie in swapping schemes. In both cases, the need for newness and creativity can be facilitated aesthetically but with items already owned.
Other practical considerations must also be made. There is still a material product at the center of these use-oriented business models (Welford et al., 1998); a product made cheaply and designed in a disposable paradigm (Allwood et al., 2006). The use intensity required for sustainable PSS will command higher quality clothing goods and a consumer base capable of recognizing and appreciating quality: both factors significantly deteriorating in the era of fast fashion, especially among young consumers (Bhardwaj and Fairhurst, 2010). On the other hand, this approach could conclude the fashion industry's long history with worker abuse and human rights violations by considering quality of life for all, consumers and providers (Bocken et al., 2014; Welford et al., 1998), taking initiatives such as CSR to a more meaningful level. An undoubtedly important implication in most of these models (consultancy, rental and swapping) is that of a labor-intensive situation, in which labor is the key capital expenditure in the delivery of the service-as-product, unlike other clothing retail schemes, which include manufacturing of a material good but also various other resources to maintain a self-service retail environment, such as packaging and theft prevention mechanisms. With the exception of the rental model, swapping and consultancy hinge on labor costs. Welford et al. (1998) argue that taxing energy rather than labor could incentivize large companies to transition to service-oriented models and away from manufacturing.
Other considerations were identified as paramount to PSS success. Launching these services within already established retail brands may diminish the safety and credibility issues cited by participants. The importance of strong networks and collaboration that can support quality service delivery cannot be underestimated (Birkin et al., 2009; Reim et al., 2015). The provider must also be capable of communicating a clear benefit-for-cost service proposition (e.g. time, engagement) in light of readily available cheap fashion clothing alternatives (Reim et al., 2015), and doing so with an aesthetic flair (Dobers and Stannegård, 2005). Finally, retailers interested in offering such schemes must identify logistical measures to ensure quality and hygiene of goods. A use-oriented clothing economy? Though still an anomaly in the sustainable development movement (Heiskanen and Jalas, 2003; Tukker, 2004), this study has provided important insights and preliminary affirmation about the potential for alternative avenues of consumption to augment the current material-oriented paradigm.
