Developing Multilingual Competence in Future Educators: Approaches, Challenges, and Best Practices

1 Introduction

In the twenty-first century, which brings unprecedented challenges to humanity, higher education is becoming a key element for the sustainable development of society. According to UNESCO, in this century, the emphasis is shifting from simply having an education to the ability to apply acquired knowledge to create new ones and use them in a variety of life situations (Gao & Yang, 2023; UNESCO, 2003, 2014, 2023). To adapt to the challenges of the twenty-first century, it is necessary to look for innovative approaches in education, among which the most important are updating professional education, developing multilingualism, and strengthening the practical orientation of learning, while maintaining its deep fundamentality (Almazroa & Alotaibi, 2023; Coşanay & Karalı, 2022; Kaya, 2019).

The changing role of educators in today’s multilingual and multicultural world reflects the complexity and dynamism of the educational environment. According to Kylkabaeva (2017), the introduction of multilingual education is becoming an important tool in preparing the younger generation for life in an interconnected world. For example, in Kazakhstan, multilingual education is focused on an in-depth study of the Kazakh language in combination with Russian and English, which corresponds to the strategy of training specialists fluent in three languages.

In the context of modern education, the teacher acts not only as a mediator of knowledge, but also as a navigator in the world of information, promoting the development of critical thinking and independence of students. Chkanikova (2018) believes that the change in the role of the teacher is due to the fact that modern students perceive information and knowledge differently, preferring active and applied learning.

Translingualism pedagogy offers a new approach to working with multilingual students, actively using the power of the students’ native language to facilitate learning and strengthen their identity. Teachers at the Center for Integration and Multilingualism believe that this approach contributes to the development of cognitive abilities and school activities of students studying in multilingual classes (Rubinov, 2021).

In the context of translanguaging pedagogy, its application and the UN Sustainable Development Goals are closely intertwined, creating the basis for a more inclusive and equitable education. This approach not only promotes cognitive development and intercultural competence of students, but also directly links to several sustainable development goals, such as quality education (Goal 4), gender equality (Goal 5), reducing inequalities (Goal 10), and promoting peace and justice (Goal 16) (United Nations, 2015).

The purpose of this article is to explore and analyze different approaches, challenges, and best practices in developing multilingual competence in future teachers. The article seeks to identify effective teaching methods that will help teachers adapt to multilingual and multicultural educational environments, as well as to identify the main obstacles to the development of multilingual skills. Particular attention is paid to analyzing the impact of multilingual educational practice on the professional development of future teachers, as well as considering the issues of integrating multilingual education into the curriculum to achieve better results in teaching and educating the next generations of students in the spirit of intercultural understanding and tolerance.

The development of multilingual competence among future teachers faces a number of challenges and problems, the relevance of which is undoubted in the modern globalized educational space (Kekeeva, Dorzhinova, & Abugalieva, 2020; Vyshnevska, Bratanych, Skydan, Hushko, & Karimova, 2021). Key challenges include the lack of qualified teachers with high levels of multilingual skills, limited resources and materials for teaching in multilingual environments, and the difficulty of integrating multilingual education into existing curricula. In addition, it is necessary to overcome cultural and linguistic barriers between students and teachers of different backgrounds (Gitschthaler, Kast, Corazza, & Schwab, 2021; Hang Khong & Saito, 2014). The relevance of this topic is due to the growing need of society for specialists who are able to work effectively in a multicultural and multilingual context, which requires the education system to prepare teachers who have not only deep knowledge in their field, but also multilingual competence.

In the context of the modern globalized educational space, the training of future teachers who are able to function effectively in a multilingual and multicultural educational environment becomes an urgent problem. The main difficulty lies in the insufficient training of teachers, which is due to limited resources, as well as a lack of methodological and linguistic competencies to work in conditions of linguistic and cultural diversity. This problem leads to the need to research and develop effective learning approaches and strategies that would help future teachers adapt and teach successfully in such an environment. Based on a specific research problem, the following research questions can be formulated:

1. What methods and approaches in teacher training are most effective for developing multilingual competence among future teachers in a multicultural educational environment?

2. What are the main obstacles and limitations encountered in integrating multilingual education into existing university curricula?

3. How does resource provision affect the quality of training future teachers to work in a multilingual environment?

4. What practical strategies can be recommended to educational institutions to improve the training of teachers who are able to teach effectively in a multilingual environment?

These questions are aimed at identifying and analyzing key aspects of preparing teachers to work in conditions of linguistic and cultural diversity, which will allow a deeper understanding of the complexities and needs of multilingual education and develop recommendations for optimizing curricula.

In light of the increasing demands of today’s educational environment, it is critical to equip future teachers with effective multilingual competencies to work in diverse classrooms. Despite recognition of the importance of multilingual skills, supported by the theoretical work of Vygotsky and Krashen and practical methods such as project-based learning (PBL) and task-based language learning (TBLL), significant gaps still exist in teacher education programs. These shortcomings are especially noticeable in the integration of methodologies that promote deep understanding and active participation through instruction in students’ native language. The research problem is to determine the most effective strategies and necessary reforms to develop multilingual competence in future teachers. This includes assessing existing pedagogical approaches, addressing shortages of qualified teaching resources, and adapting teaching strategies to accommodate linguistic diversity. The goal is to develop tangible solutions that will significantly improve teacher training, ensuring that teachers are prepared to meet the needs of multilingual educational environments and effectively contribute to the implementation of global educational reforms. This study intends to fill existing gaps in the literature by providing a comprehensive analysis of challenges and best practices in the field of multilingual competency development and providing a basis for future research and practical implementation in teacher education curricula.

2 Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework for the development of multilingual competence in future teachers is central to this work, as it provides the necessary conceptual framework for analyzing various approaches and methodologies in this area. These theories emphasize the importance of social interaction, cultural context, and active participation in the learning process, which are key to the formation of effective multilingual educational environments.

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory has a significant impact on understanding the process of language learning, emphasizing the role of social interaction and cultural context (Mcleod, 2024). For the theoretical foundations section of your article on developing multilingual competence in future teachers, you can use the following analysis.

At the heart of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is the belief that a person’s cognitive development is inextricably linked to his cultural and social context. Vygotsky assumed that basic cognitive structures develop through active participation in social activities with more competent members of society. This interaction includes themselves using cultural tools such as language and other symbolic systems, which are directly related to language teaching. A fundamental concept in Vygotsky’s theory is the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which describes the difference between what a student can do on his own and what he can do with the help of a more experienced mentor (Kalugin, 2014). In the context of multilingual education, this suggests that teachers should create learning situations that respect and enhance students’ ZPD by presenting them with challenges slightly beyond their current capabilities, but achievable with support.

The application of sociocultural theory to the development of multilingual competence implies that language learning must be integrated into meaningful social practices that involve cultural interaction and communication. For example, the use of language games, group projects, and role-playing games can stimulate language development and cultural understanding. Additionally, it is important to consider that multilingual environments provide unique opportunities for social interaction and cultural exchange, which are the basis for effective language learning.

Thus, by taking into account Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, educators can develop more holistic and engaging approaches to language teaching that actively use social context and cultural interaction as core elements of the educational process.

Another framework of multilingualism is constructivism, which emphasizes the active role of students in the process of constructing knowledge, which is especially important in the context of multilingual education. Future teachers, applying the principles of constructivism, can significantly improve their language skills and intercultural competencies, which is an integral part of the modern educational process.

Constructivism argues that knowledge is best learned through active participation in meaningful activities (Kaufman, 2004). In the context of multilingual education, this may include participation in language practices within communities where those languages are naturally used. For example, internships in different countries or participation in international educational projects can provide future teachers with the necessary immersion experiences that promote deep and meaningful language learning. A key element of the constructivist approach is interaction with different cultural and linguistic groups, which allows students to learn first-hand about the diversity of language practices and cultural contexts. This not only contributes to the development of language skills, but also builds intercultural competence, which is extremely important for teachers working in a multicultural environment.

Constructivism also emphasizes the importance of reflection in learning. Prospective teachers should analyze and evaluate their language interactions and educational experiences, which promotes deeper understanding and personal growth (Can, 2009). A regular reflective task, such as journaling or reporting on your language practices, can greatly enhance this process.

The New London Group’s Multiliteracies Framework emphasizes the need for a wide range of literacies in a modern world where communication extends beyond traditional understandings of language (The New London Group, 1996). This is especially important for future teachers, as they must be able to navigate diverse cultural and linguistic contexts. In the modern world, communication often includes various modalities – from written and oral to visual and digital. Multiliterate education systems train future educators to use these diverse channels to provide more effective and inclusive learning.

Understanding and respecting cultural differences are key aspects of multiliteracy. This includes the ability to interpret and integrate different cultural codes and symbols into the learning process. Such interactions not only enrich learning, but also promote intercultural dialogue and understanding. One aspect of multiliteracy is developing a critical attitude toward sources of information and the way they are presented (Sang, 2017). Training future educators to critically analyze media texts and other forms of communication helps them better understand how language and cultural codes influence perception and behavior.

Teacher preparation programs may include special courses or modules on multiliteracies, where future teachers learn to create educational materials that use a variety of communication forms. Examples include developing multimedia teaching aids or organizing interactive projects that appeal to students with different cultural and linguistic backgrounds.

3 Methods

This study employs a mixed-methods approach, integrating both qualitative and quantitative research paradigms to comprehensively address the research questions concerning the development of multilingual competence in educators. This methodology allows for a nuanced analysis of pedagogical strategies and their impacts while also quantifying the effectiveness of different teaching practices across diverse educational settings. The choice of a mixed-methods approach is supported by the work of Creswell (2014), who advocates for its utility in exploring complex phenomena by capturing a broad spectrum of perspectives.

The research design incorporates two primary components: conducting a systematic review of existing scholarly articles, books, conference papers, and authoritative reports related to multilingual education. This review is crucial for establishing the theoretical foundation of the study and for identifying gaps in current research, as outlined by Torraco (2005), who emphasizes the importance of literature reviews in framing and shaping research in education.

Utilizing case studies and surveys to gather first-hand data from educators and institutions that exemplify innovative multilingual teaching practices. Yin (2018) supports the use of case studies to delve deep into the operational realities of educational settings, providing contextual insights that are often missed in broader surveys.

The method of data collection was to examine educational documents, teaching materials, and institutional policies relevant to multilingual education, led by Prior (2003), who describes the methodological rigor required in document analysis.

Data analysis follows the sequential research strategy defined by Ivankova, Creswell, and Stick (2006), starting with qualitative data to gain deeper insight and then quantitative analysis to test the generalizability of these ideas. Thematic analysis of interview transcripts and document content to identify recurring themes and patterns. This analysis uses Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-step approach to ensure systematic and transparent coding and development of themes. After separate analysis, qualitative and quantitative data are compared and combined to produce comprehensive findings that answer the research questions. This step is critical for validating the results obtained from different data sources and increasing the reliability of the conclusions.

Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the U. Zhanibekov South Kazakhstan Pedagogical University. All participants provided informed consent, and data confidentiality was maintained in accordance with the ethical principles of the above-mentioned Ethics Committee.

The detailed description of methods in this article provides a rigorous and transparent approach to examining the effectiveness of multilingual education strategies. By grounding each methodological choice in the scientific literature and clearly describing data collection and analysis procedures, this study aims to provide robust findings to the field of educational research.

4 Results and Discussion

Multilingual competence means familiarity with two or more languages based on how those languages are used in different contexts. This includes not only the ability to understand and use different languages, but also an awareness of how knowledge of different languages can influence a person’s linguistic skills and awareness. An important aspect of multilingual competence is understanding how different languages can interact and influence each other, as well as the characteristics of language development in multilingual children and identifying possible language problems in such children. In addition, multilingual competence includes reading and writing skills in different languages, as well as changes in multilingual competence throughout the lifespan (Tonne, 2023). This opinion is shared by scientists from the University of Oslo (Center for Multilingualism in Society across the Lifespan) (Figure 1). The Council of the European Union defines multilingualism as the ability to understand, express, and interpret concepts, thoughts, feelings, facts, and opinions, both orally and in writing (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) in an appropriate range of social and cultural contexts in accordance with individual desires (Cedefop, 2018).

Figure 1

Key questions of multilingual competence according to the Center for Multilingualism in Society across the lifespan (Tonne, 2023).

In the past, scholars have often conceptualized multilingual abilities as a collection of individual monolingual skills, implying that a person’s proficiency in each language reflects native speaker proficiency in the respective languages (Bloomfield, 1993; Cenoz & Gorter, 2011). This view assumed that a multilingual person would demonstrate native-like proficiency in multiple languages. However, this generally accepted view has been revised. Currently, researchers agree that it is inappropriate to compare the linguistic skills of multilingual people directly with the linguistic skills of monolingual speakers. Modern definitions of multilingualism recognize that achieving native-like fluency in each language is not necessary. This shift in understanding recognizes that multilingual people use their languages in different contexts and for different purposes, often without achieving the same level of proficiency in all their languages (Kemp, 2009). According to Kang from Columbia University, this nuanced approach takes into account the unique linguistic repertoire of multilinguals, emphasizing the functional distribution and specific uses of their languages rather than equating their skills directly with those of monolingual speakers (Kang, 2013).

Key issues related to multilingual competence include the study of how children, adolescents, and adults acquire multiple languages and how the use of multiple languages affects an individual’s linguistic skills and awareness (Cenoz, 2013). It also focuses on the mutual influence of different languages and the characteristics of language development in multilingual children, including ways to identify language problems and develop reading and writing skills in multilingual children in school and the community.

Multilingual competence includes the ability to use and understand more than one language. This involves not only linguistic skills in each language, but also the ability to seamlessly switch between languages, taking into account the appropriate cultural context and communication strategies for each language. This competency goes beyond simple vocabulary and grammar to include pragmatic abilities, sociolinguistic awareness, and metalinguistic skills, enabling individuals to effectively navigate different linguistic and cultural landscapes.

One of the key aspects of multilingual competence is the concept of translanguage, which refers to the process by which speakers of multiple languages navigate and blend their languages to make meaning, communicate, and learn in ways that cross traditional linguistic boundaries (García, 2009). Another important element is language proficiency, where people not only know how to use multiple languages, but also understand how these languages function in different contexts, which contributes to their overall communicative competence.

To elaborate on multilingual competence, it is important to recognize that it also involves a deep understanding of the cultural nuances associated with each language. This cultural competence allows people to interact more meaningfully and respectfully with speakers of different languages.

Moreover, multilingual competence is characterized by the ability to code switch, that is, alternate between two or more languages or varieties of language in a conversation. Grosjean (1982) describes that this skill reflects a high level of linguistic proficiency and social awareness, allowing multilingual people to adapt language use to different social and communicative contexts. Pavlenko considers the development of multilingual identity as people integrate the different languages they speak into their sense of self, often feeling a unique connection to each linguistic community they are part of (Pavlenko, 2006). This aspect of identity is critical as it influences motivation, language learning, and language use. In addition, multilingual competence includes metalinguistic awareness, that is, the ability to reflect on and manipulate the structure of language itself. According to Bialystok (2001), this awareness is enhanced in multilingual people because they can compare and contrast the languages they know, leading to greater cognitive flexibility and creative problem solving.

In educational settings, developing multilingual competence involves pedagogical strategies that value and develop the linguistic resources that students bring to the classroom, creating an inclusive environment in which all languages are seen as an asset rather than a liability (Cummins, 2000).

Theoretical models of multilingual education have been proposed to support educational practices that value and utilize students’ linguistic diversity while promoting more inclusive and effective learning environments.

For example, the dynamic model of multilingualism proposed by Herdina and Jessner (2002) suggests that multilingual competence is not static, but develops over time under the influence of individual language learning experiences and their impact. This model emphasizes the importance of cognitive factors, such as the ability to learn and adapt to a new language environment, in the development of multilingual competence.

For a comprehensive understanding of these models and their application to educational policy and practice, the works of Baker and Wright (2021) and Benson (2011, 2013) provide valuable insight into the underlying principles of bilingual education and the essential role of non-dominant languages in education. These models advocate recognizing and leveraging students’ diverse linguistic backgrounds to create educational environments that are inclusive and conducive to effective learning.

In the context of non-dominant languages, a study by Subramanian and Visawanathan (2023) highlights the serious challenges of the Indian educational system in the use of the Tamil language. The problem lies in the insufficient consideration of the linguistic diversity of the country, which makes it especially difficult to teach mathematics among marginalized groups of the population. These groups, faced with social and economic barriers, are often limited only to textbooks as a source of knowledge, which does not always correspond to their linguistic and cultural characteristics. This situation highlights the urgent need for empirical research that would contribute to an in-depth study of the role of native languages in the educational process, taking into account both caste and linguistic diversity, in order to ensure equal access to education for all groups of the population.

The question of the role of non-dominant languages in education is extremely relevant for countries such as Kenya and the Republic of South Africa, where multilingual policies and curricula face various problems in their implementation (Kretzer & Oluoch-Suleh, 2022). Despite national and regional language policy documents, the final decision on the implementation or rejection of an official language policy is made by teachers, and their involvement in the process of developing language policy and curriculum reform is a key factor in successful implementation. In the Republic of South Africa, the failure of the curriculum reform C2005 and partly in Kenya shows that without the real participation of teachers and taking into account their opinions, as well as without taking into account historical and socio-cultural conditions, large-scale educational changes are doomed to failure. The example of South Africa, where nine African languages have received official status and greater equality compared to the Kenyan situation, where the predominant languages such as English and Swahili outshine other African languages, demonstrates different approaches to solving linguistic problems. In addition, the Swahili pilot project could be a significant step toward promoting African languages in education across the continent. However, even with some positive developments, African languages still play a secondary role in the educational system of both countries, which underscores the need for a more detailed analysis of language curricula and the development of a consistent multilingual policy that would promote real and meaningful learning through African languages for most students.

In addition to theoretical models of multilingual education, there are also other aspects of it. The cognitive aspect of language learning focuses on the mental processes involved in acquiring a new language, including memory, perception, and problem-solving (Belkhir, 2020; Berthele & Udry, 2022). The sociocultural perspective emphasizes the importance of social interaction and cultural context in learning, suggesting that language is not only a tool of communication, but also a way of participating in cultural practices (Kroll & Dussias, 2017). The psychological aspect takes into account individual differences of learners, such as motivation, anxiety, and personality, which can significantly influence the success of language learning (Thompson, 2013).

To delve deeper into the cognitive, sociocultural, and psychological aspects of language learning, it is useful to study the works of Lev Vygotsky (Mahn & John-Steiner, 2012), who emphasizes the critical role of social interaction and cultural tools in cognitive development, and Stephen Krashen (Snyder, 2007), known for his theories about the natural process of acquisition and the influence of affective factors such as motivation and anxiety. These scholars offer a comprehensive framework for understanding how people acquire languages in different contexts, shedding light on the complex interactions between mental processes, social environment, and personality in language learning (Table 1).

For example, Lev Vygotsky’s work on the cognitive, sociocultural, and psychological aspects of language learning centers around the idea that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky believed that community and culture deeply shape a person’s learning process, and language acquisition is a central component of this process. His concept of the ZPD is particularly influential, emphasizing the potential for cognitive development when a learner is supported by an MKO. This approach emphasizes the importance of collaborative learning environments that are culturally responsive to students (Podolskiy, 2012).

Stephen Krashen’s theories about language learning, particularly the input hypothesis and the affective filter hypothesis, offer valuable insights into the cognitive, sociocultural, and psychological aspects of language acquisition. Krashen suggests that comprehensible input that is slightly above the learner’s current language level is critical for language acquisition (Krashen, 1987). Moreover, it emphasizes the importance of a low affective filter, in which low anxiety, high motivation, and self-confidence contribute to language learning. These concepts emphasize the importance of a supportive learning environment that encourages interaction and minimizes psychological barriers.

While Vygotsky emphasizes the role of social interactions and cultural contexts in cognitive development, and Krashen focuses on the importance of comprehensible information for language acquisition, both theories lay down foundational principles that guide different approaches to the development of multilingual competence. By integrating insights from these theories, we can explore a variety of strategies that not only support language learning, but also promote greater understanding and appreciation of multiple languages across diverse sociocultural landscapes. It is appropriate here to delve into how these theoretical frameworks translate into practical methodologies for developing students’ multilingual abilities, exploring the balance between input, interaction, cultural immersion, and pedagogical practices adapted to multilingual education.

Approaches to developing multilingual competence include a range of methodologies and pedagogical strategies aimed at improving students’ ability to understand, speak, read, and write more than one language. These approaches focus not only on language proficiency, but also on cultural and intercultural competence. Figure 2 outlines some key approaches.

Figure 2

Approaches to developing multilingual competence (Beacco, 2016; Council of Europe, 2007; Coyle, Hood, & Marsh, 2010; Ellis, 2003; García & Li, 2014; Genesee, 1987).

These approaches emphasize the multifaceted nature of language learning, recognizing the importance of cognitive, sociocultural, and practical aspects in the development of multilingual competence. Each approach offers unique benefits and can be adapted to different educational contexts to meet the diverse needs of students.

Below we give examples of the use of the above methods by teachers in the educational process. Gjendemsjø's (2013) study examines a content and language-integrated learning (CLIL) project in a Norwegian ninth-grade English as a foreign language (EFL) class, focusing on the Second World War from the perspective of youth using English as a language of instruction. CLIL, which emphasizes learning content in a non-native language to improve both subject knowledge and language skills, has been researched for its dual benefits. The study aimed to understand the reasons why the teacher started the project, as well as the expectations, experiences, and challenges faced by both teacher and students in assessing the impact of the project on students through various methods including questionnaires, lesson observations, and interviews.

Key findings highlight the important role of the teacher, who initiated the project out of dissatisfaction with traditional textbook methods and faced challenges in finding appropriate materials for a diverse class. Teachers found the project useful, and it was received positively by students, who valued learning about World War II in English and enjoyed film lessons, although they found some texts challenging and were less enthusiastic about presentations and writing assignments. The project encouraged active participation and the development of topic-specific vocabulary, although broader improvements in language skills were less evident. This study shows that CLIL can be effective for primary school students in Norway, extending its application beyond secondary education.

Also, Iskos, Ralls, and Gegkiou (2017) explored the experiences and perspectives of English teachers in a private Greek school using semi-structured interviews and journals analyzed using NVIVO 7, a qualitative data analysis software. The study aimed to shed light on how CLIL is implemented with the youngest students, from preschool to third grade. Despite the varied applications of CLIL at this early age, a common approach is emerging, largely influenced by educators. The results show that teachers view CLIL as an essential element of their teaching practice. However, they face challenges such as the need for greater collaboration, time, and planning. This case study offers insight into the practical aspects of using CLIL with young students in Greece, highlighting the diversity of the method and its perceived benefits as teachers. This also highlights the need for CLIL to be formally recognized within the education system to ensure it is more structuredly integrated rather than being an optional add-on. Despite the limited scope of the study, which included only six teachers, it provides valuable insight into the use of CLIL with young learners and highlights the challenges associated with it.

A study by Toyos (2022) examines teachers’ adaptation to a CLIL environment in Spain, highlighting the lack of specific training among CLIL teachers who have different backgrounds as content or language specialists. This diversity results in a mixture of pre-existing teacher identities that influence their teaching practices. Using qualitative case study methods including interviews and questionnaires, the study shows that teachers’ adaptation and identity negotiation in CLIL settings is deeply influenced by their past experiences and their views of the community they serve, as well as their level of interaction with that community.

Also, in an elementary school north of Madrid (Spain), four tests were conducted for students in grades 5–6 during the year to assess student progress in reading, divided into various sub-languages with the introduction of CLIL (Fernández-Fernández & Halbach, 2023). The results show the advantages of this approach in improving students’ reading and text awareness. The authors believe that English language teaching often remains focused on language accuracy and test preparation, while CLIL contexts require students to actively participate in the process of creating meaning in various formats and modes. For these students, working with texts in a foreign language is directly related to their academic success.

As part of a specific study, the effectiveness of the implementation of CLIL in primary schools in southern Taiwan was evaluated according to a 5-week insect program based on the 4C Coyle model (Beaudin, 2022). The study showed a significant improvement in student results in post-tests, as well as positive feedback on CLIL in questionnaires, despite difficulties in assessing content knowledge due to the limited language skills of students. The authors are convinced that in the future, it is necessary to develop more effective methods of assessing the knowledge of the content in classes with a low level of English proficiency.

Considering the linguistic and cultural diversity of international students as a resource and source of empowerment, a study by Song, Makinina, and Ng (2023) demonstrates how learning practices enhanced by multilingualism can enhance students’ linguistic, cultural, and intellectual strengths, as well as their transnational identities, through a CLIL-based English for Academic Purposes course at a Canadian university. Based on the framework of the pedagogy of multilingualism/pluriliterations, the article shows how the three researchers structured their innovative and inclusive course of study to facilitate the development of student multilingualism through a two-year research action project. To deepen students’ discussions with educational materials and link them to their own transnational travels and intercultural experiences, students were invited to participate in a series of tasks integrated into experiential education and multimodal tasks such as identity texts and multimedia blog reflections. Using evidence obtained from interviews, questionnaires, and samples of students’ work, the study highlights that these innovative and inclusive tasks focused on multimodality to engage in multilingualism, create an inclusive space in which students act as providers of knowledge from their familiar intellectual fields and as seekers of new information.

Key findings indicate that teachers’ personal and professional experiences play a critical role in how they negotiate their CLIL identities. Teachers can either integrate a new identity that complements an existing one or reject new aspects that conflict with their established teacher identity. The study suggests the need to develop tailored professional development programs to increase language awareness among CLIL teachers and strengthen connections with their educational community.

A successful example of the use of immersion and bilingual education programs can be found in Canada. According to Safty (1991), Canada’s French Immersion Program is a testament to the effective implementation of immersion and bilingual education to ensure that English-speaking students develop proficiency in French from kindergarten through high school. This program not only emphasizes early and continued exposure to French for language and literacy development, but also integrates cultural knowledge to enrich students’ multicultural understanding. Despite challenges such as faculty shortages, resource allocation, and equal access, Von Baeyer and Von Baeyer (2002) found that the program showed promising results in terms of students’ bilingual fluency, academic achievement, and cultural competence. The Canadian experience with French immersion provides valuable insight into the potential of bilingual education to enhance multilingualism and cultural understanding, highlighting the need for well-designed, well-resourced programs accessible to all students.

A study by Yang and Chen (2007) delves into high school students’ perceptions of using Internet tools for language learning, specifically in a Taiwanese program called Advanced Collaborative English Teaching (AJET), involving 44 male tenth-grade students and their teacher. By participating in various online activities such as group email, web courses, email writing programs, home page design, video conferencing, and chat discussions, students reported that they enjoyed learning English online, highlighting the innovative aspect and advanced learning opportunities that these technologies offer. However, opinions differ regarding the effectiveness of these methods. The results suggest that while technology-enhanced language learning projects such as AJET can improve interaction and learning opportunities, they also require students to adopt new learning strategies and an active approach to learning. The study highlights the need for pedagogical guidance to address the challenges of online English language learning and offers suggestions for the effective integration of computer networks in language education.

In addition to the above teaching strategies, there are also pedagogical techniques. For example, a study by Vongxay (2013) examines the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) by English language teachers in higher education institutions in Laos, highlighting the shift from traditional grammar-based methods to communicative-oriented teaching due to the global importance of English in various sectors. Despite changes in policy regarding CLT in many EFL contexts, discrepancies remain between policy intentions and classroom realities. Through qualitative analysis and semi-structured interviews with ten English language teachers from a Lao tertiary institution, the study identified barriers to CLT implementation, including teachers’ misconceptions about CLT, adherence to traditional methods, limited English language proficiency, and insufficient CLT training. Problems associated with students include low English language proficiency, incompatible learning styles and models, and lack of motivation for communicative competence. Systemic barriers such as exam pressure, large class sizes, and insufficient funding, as well as the lack of integration of CLT in society and education, further complicate the implementation of CLT. The findings offer practical recommendations for educational leaders, policymakers, and educators to improve the implementation of CLT in Lao higher education to bridge the gap between language policy and classroom practice and promote the effective development of communicative competence in English.

In the educational context of Ethiopia, this study examined English language teachers’ compliance with CLT methodology as prescribed by the updated syllabus through a qualitative case study involving four carefully selected teachers. Observations by Adem and Berkessa (2022) in the classroom and stimulated reminiscence interviews provided insight into actual teaching practice in comparison to CLT ideals. Key findings revealed uniformity in teachers’ core activities and teaching cycles, marked inconsistencies between practiced and prescribed CLT teaching methods, and various factors influencing the effective implementation of CLT, especially in teaching speaking skills. Notably, student-related issues such as insufficient basic skills, limited prior experience with speaking activities, predominant use of the native language during interactive exercises, fear of making mistakes, disinterest in speaking tasks, and an overarching emphasis on standardized testing were significant barriers.

The work of Haroon and Ahmad (2021) examined the effectiveness of CLT in English language teaching, barriers to its successful implementation, and strategies to mitigate these problems. Despite the widespread acceptance of CLT as a transformative approach to teaching English as a second language, its implementation in EFL schools, including private language institutes in Lahore, Pakistan, faces various challenges. These challenges range from systemic educational constraints and limited resources to differences in ESL teachers’ perceptions and practices. Using a mixed-methods approach including interviews, observations, and questionnaires, the study identifies key barriers such as the predominance of teacher-centered classrooms, overemphasis on grammatical rules, lack of exposure to communicative activities, marginalization of active learner roles, and persistence. Traditional teaching methods and large class sizes. These factors combine to hinder the adoption of the interactive and learner-centered ethos of CLT.

Another method widely used in pedagogy is TBLL. This method is an evolution of the CLT approach and emerged in the 1980s as a method that focused on the use of authentic language and meaningful tasks to facilitate learning (Dorathy & Mahalakshmi, 2016; Sholeh, 2020). It shifts the focus of learning from traditional grammar-based learning to engaging students in tasks that simulate real-life language use, such as problem-solving, undertaking projects, or sharing experiences, thereby promoting mastery of language as a tool of communication (Büyükkarci, 2009; Ellis, 2003). Activities in TBLL are designed to reflect practical scenarios in which language is used for a specific purpose, encouraging students to develop language competence through active participation in communicative activities. This approach emphasizes the pragmatic use of language in context, aiming to improve students’ fluency and communication skills by simulating everyday situations. A successful example is an elementary Italian course that uses task-based language teaching (TBLT) in two separate sections, each with 30 students, over the course of a year (Means, 2020). The purpose of the study is to present a research-based practical model of TBLT for foreign language teaching and convey the experiences of both students and teachers. Qualitative student reviews indicate positive perceptions of the course, highlighting its effectiveness and enjoyment. A key finding was that TBLT met the core purpose of students appreciating the real-world applicability of language skills acquired in the classroom.

Research on task-based learning (TBL), in both theoretical and practical frameworks, suggests its superiority over traditional teaching methods due to its emphasis on communicative interaction in the classroom, transforming students from passive recipients to active participants. According to Sholeh (2022), TBL allows students to interact with authentic materials, thereby improving their language and communication skills through practical tasks, promoting fluency and accuracy in language use in long-term projects. This approach is particularly useful for second language (L2) learners as it offers a more realistic and effective method for improving language competence (Bryfonski & McKay, 2019; Candlin, 1987; Ismaili, 2013). However, the implementation of TBL, especially in foreign language classrooms at the secondary school level, poses challenges such as teacher qualifications, teacher training, and resource availability (Ellis, 2019; Gass & Mackey, 2015). Despite these barriers, the pedagogical benefits of TBL, including spontaneous interaction, increased automaticity, vocabulary acquisition, and experiential learning, are significant. To address these challenges, recommendations include specialized teacher training in TBL, improving teachers’ language skills, innovative preparation of TBL materials, strategic grouping of students by proficiency level, and effective classroom management, especially in large and diverse settings (Ruso, 2007). Adapting TBL to be more context-specific and consistent with teachers’ values and experiences could further enhance its effectiveness and feasibility.

Another effective method is PBL, which, in the context of multilingual education, offers a dynamic and interactive approach to learning multiple languages by engaging students in complex projects that require the use of different languages to complete tasks (Oxford, 2006). This method integrates language learning with real-world problem solving and collaboration, allowing students to apply their linguistic skills in different contexts and cultures. By working on projects that require communication, research, and presentation in multiple languages, students not only improve their language skills, but also develop a deeper understanding of the cultural nuances associated with each language (González-Lloret & Nielson, 2015). A concrete example of PBL in action is the Teen Magazine project at Naim Frasheri School in Elbasan, Albania, involving 7th-grade students. This case study details the progress of the project, including team formation, task allocation, and evaluation methods, and discusses the successes and challenges encountered over the three years of its implementation, highlighting the evolution and improvement of the project process over time.

A qualitative case study was conducted in a Malaysian secondary school by Sathappan and Gurusamy (2021) to study the impact of PBL on student engagement and understanding. The study, involving three teachers, used semi-structured interviews to collect information, which was then analyzed through thematic analysis. The results highlight the effectiveness of PBL in stimulating student engagement, deepening subject understanding through active participation, and promoting independent learning. Participants noted several benefits of PBL, including improved interaction between students and teachers, skill development, and practical application of knowledge in real-life scenarios. While some challenges are acknowledged, the study concludes that PBL can significantly improve student motivation and prepare them with the necessary skills to effectively implement PBL, highlighting its value in modern education.

A study by Latifaj (2022) explored the views and roles of teachers and students regarding PBL in secondary schools in Kosovo, involving 60 students and 8 English language teachers. The study aimed to explore teachers’ experiences with PBL, challenges encountered, benefits observed, resources used, and the impact of PBL on students’ motivation to learn EFL. Teachers reported partial use of PBL, believing it to be more effective for certain age groups and viewing themselves primarily as facilitators in a student-centered learning environment. They also noted the increasing reliance on technology and a variety of activities to engage students in PBL. In this context, the study by Cai, Zhu, and Yu (2023) analyzed the attitude of primary school teachers in China toward PBL and identified factors that may influence their attitude toward this teaching method. The analysis was based on a survey of 257 primary school teachers and interviews with ten teachers in China. The results showed that primary school teachers in China were generally positive about PBL, but their attitudes varied depending on the level of education, work experience, and subjects taught. The results of the regression analysis showed that factors such as learning, social support, resources, and time availability had a positive impact on teachers’ attitudes toward PBL. In addition, the interview data were analyzed to understand teachers’ perceptions of how they can be assisted in using PBL in teaching.

In the work of Li and Zhu (2023), a new 3P model was built in the context of mixed project learning, using training data to verify this model and identify potential factors affecting the learning process and its results. The study was conducted at an educational institution in Lanzhou, China. The results showed that the preliminary variables of academic motivation and course design positively affect the process variables of blended learning and learning engagement, respectively. The preliminary variable of academic motivation and the process variable of educational engagement have a positive effect on the final variable of the development of transferable skills. In blended project learning, it is necessary to enhance students’ sense of experience and engagement by increasing their academic motivation and optimizing course design, thereby contributing to the development of transferable student skills.

The case study by Le Henaff, Jameau, and Gruson (2017) focuses on the teaching of chemistry in English in a French secondary school, particularly in “European classes” where subjects are taught in a foreign language, within the framework of the national research project “ReVEA,” funded by the French National Research Agency. It examines a chemistry teacher’s use of resources during a lesson on atoms in English, integrating a documentary didactics approach to explore the interactions between her knowledge, documentation work, and teaching resources. Drawing on concepts such as “linguistic opacity” and “subject density,” the study highlights the specific pedagogical approach required to teach academic content in a foreign language. Initial results from the videotaped lessons suggest that this method offers a unique perspective on the subject, as evidenced by the in-depth epistemological discussion of atoms prompted by the English-language video. However, problems arise due to students’ difficulty understanding specific scientific terminology and the potential limitations of pre-existing educational materials available on the Internet.

A study by Bianco and Andonova (2020) of Bulgarian tenth-grade students taught chemistry in English showed that English proficiency level significantly influenced their learning experience, regardless of gender differences. Key factors that determine competence in English include years of language study, enjoyment of learning subjects in English, and, in particular, enjoyment of learning chemistry in English. The study highlights that students’ success in learning chemical concepts in English and their satisfaction with the learning process are directly related to their English language proficiency. To improve understanding and scientific literacy, it is suggested that the material be first presented in students’ native language and then translated into English. At the same time, the introduction of innovative methods and the organization of group work contribute to more active interaction among students and discussion of scientific ideas, which facilitates the study of scientific disciplines in a foreign language through meaningful learning. However, the implementation of such an approach in multilingual education faces a number of obstacles, including the need for material and pedagogical resources, which complicates the effective implementation and application of this teaching methodology. Critical challenges include a lack of resources, such as bilingual teachers and culturally relevant materials, along with the need for significant investments in language-specific technologies, which are often constrained by limited education budgets (Baker, 2001). Lucas and Villegas (2013) consider that professional readiness and continuous development of teachers are of paramount importance given the critical shortage of well-prepared bilingual instructors needed to meet the diverse needs of a linguistically diverse student population. The curriculum and teaching methods must be innovatively designed to cover all languages represented in the program, taking into account the different linguistic competencies of students. Moreover, the difficulty of assessing students’ proficiency in multiple languages poses significant challenges, especially with standardized assessments that may not fully reflect the abilities of multilingual students (Cummins, 2000; Menken, 2008). According to Skutnabb-Kangas (2000), socio-political dynamics also play a role, as prevailing attitudes toward certain languages potentially influence educational equity. The cultural and linguistic diversity of the classroom requires skillful management to ensure inclusive education, which requires the active participation of parents and the community despite potential language barriers and different educational perspectives (Banks, 2009). In addition, maintaining sustainable language learning progress and ensuring a smooth transition to education within multilingual frameworks are complicated by programmatic inconsistencies (Epstein, 2011; García & Kleifgen, 2010). These highlighted questions, drawn from a range of academic sources, highlight the multifaceted nature of the challenges of multilingual education, pointing to the need for comprehensive strategies to effectively address these complexities.

5 Conclusion

Discussions highlighted the key role of pedagogical methods in combination with the theories of Vygotsky and Krashen for the development of multilingual education, with an emphasis on the synthesis of language skills and educational content, as well as an integrated approach to language teaching. The challenges and prospects associated with implementing various language teaching strategies in multilingual classrooms were highlighted, particularly emphasizing the importance of initial mother tongue instruction for enhanced student understanding and active participation. The urgent need to develop comprehensive teacher training programs for multilingual contexts is highlighted to effectively overcome these challenges and harness the benefits of multilingualism. In conclusion, the challenge for educators, policymakers, and the education community to come together to integrate multilingual approaches by providing support in the form of resources, teacher training, and curriculum adaptations will be key to creating inclusive educational environments that support student success in a multilingual and globalized world.