Productive Giftedness: A New Mastery Approach to Understanding Talent Development
Abstract
What is “productive giftedness” and why does it matter in talent development? Using the Productive Giftedness Model, the current study examines key environmental and psychosocial factors that influence productive outcomes (e.g., achievements, accomplishments, leadership, eminence). Defined as mastery and excellence, the “productive giftedness” of ten notable artists, athletes, innovators, scientists, and writers was systematically studied. Findings highlight both commonalities and differences across three developmental stages identified in this study: early exposure and support, talent cultivation, and continuous cultivation. The article focuses on home and school learning environments, key relationships, motivation, and time factors. In particular, parents (or caregivers), teachers, and mentors played a key role in their talent development. The model also highlights the role of alterable and contextual factors, which enhance or hinder access to opportunities, support, and resources. The overall findings confirm the greater importance of supportive conditions rather than innate talent alone.
“We must believe that we are gifted for something and that this thing must be attained”.
Marie Curie
Introduction and Significance of Topic
Marie Curie1 (1867–1934) was the first female scientist to win a Nobel Prize twice for her discoveries on polonium and radium. Curie was a precocious child who read at age 4, and she graduated at the top of her secondary class by age 15. She was one of the first females to obtain a Master's and PhD in science from the University of Paris in the late 1800s.
Born and raised during challenging times in Poland, Curie did not have a linear path to success. As the youngest of five children, she and her family had to endure Russian rule in Warsaw. Given the political strife, circumstances were difficult for Curie's family. They were not allowed to speak, teach, or learn in Polish, and women were not allowed to attend university. Both parents were educators—her mother a principal and father a science teacher. However, her father was fired when laboratory science was banned from Russian schools, causing financial difficulty. Her sister's death from typhus and mother's death from tuberculosis only added to her burdens.
Despite these challenges, Curie did have some distinct advantages. With educator parents, her home was filled with learning opportunities. Her love for science began at an early age, especially when her father was forced to bring his lab equipment home, allowing Curie access and opportunities to explore his scientific apparatus. During this time, her father influenced her greatly. Curie's teachers were also supportive and gave her more opportunities to excel in school. For college, she eventually found a way to attend the University of Paris, where women were allowed. Despite her financial constraints and harsh living conditions, she enjoyed having the freedom to learn and spent most of her time reading about science. During that time, she was fortunate to be mentored by prominent scholars, PhD advisor Gabriel Lippmann and Antoine Henri Becqueral. Her closest peers were also scientists, including her research partner and husband, Pierre Curie.
Marie Curie's life story is an example of “productive giftedness”. Productive giftedness is defined as mastery, excellence, or expertise, and Curie achieved it in her early and later years (Paik, 2013, 2015). For example, during her early years, she was the top student in her high school class. In her later years, she was the first woman to earn a PhD in France (Biography.com Editors, 2014b). She also made significant discoveries, earning two Nobel prizes. Curie's productivity was notable throughout her life and career. Productively gifted individuals have the ability to move beyond potential toward productive outcomes in the form of achievements and accomplishments. Although potential can be found in all individuals, potential in itself is not enough to earn a Nobel Prize, or two, for that matter. As represented within the terms, “productive” (effort) and “giftedness” (ability) work together to actualize potential into tangible outcomes; effort helps move ability forward toward talent realization, all of which require key internal and external factors (Paik, 2013, 2015).
What are the key internal and external factors that nurture both effort and ability? In Curie's case, her early experiences provided opportunities to achieve at a young age. For example, she had conducive home and school environments, which allowed her to develop her interests in science. She had supportive parents, teachers, mentors, and peers who invested in her talent development. Individual agency also played a role as illustrated in her quotation. Curie had “focused motivation”; she was passionate, driven, resilient, and determined to realize her personal and professional goals (Paik, 2013, 2015). Consequently, she used her time constructively, learning and reading about science.
Taken together, talent development requires a comprehensive and systematic approach (Paik, 2015; Paik, Marshall-Harper, Gozali, & Johnson, forthcoming). Many theories offer one-dimensional perspectives, but research shows a number of key factors work together to produce supportive conditions and opportunities as evidenced in Curie's life (Bloom, 1985; Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1993; Paik, 2013; Walberg, 1984; Walberg & Paik, 2005). By examining the common factors and experiences of notable individuals, findings point to key environmental and psychosocial factors that influence success (Paik, 2012, 2013, 2015; Paik, Choe, Otto, & Rahman, 2018). In particular, research has found conducive learning environments matter along with individual motivation and time usage (Bloom, 1985; Paik, 2015; Walberg, 1984). Within homes and schools, parents, teachers, mentors, and other stakeholders are not only significant influences, but essential to what contributes to conducive learning environments (Paik, 2013, 2015). As such, the purpose of the article is to discuss key factors that contribute to the talent development of exceptional individuals in various fields.
Specifically, the article: (1) discusses the Productive Giftedness Model (PGM) as a mastery approach for understanding talent development, (2) delineates key environmental and psychosocial factors found in PGM, in particular, home and school environments, parents, teachers, mentors, motivation, and time factors, (3) illustrates key concepts of PGM through ten exemplars of exceptional talent in various talent domains (e.g., artists, athletes, innovators, scientists, and writers), (4) presents their commonalities and differences found across three developmental stages: early exposure and support, talent cultivation, and continuous cultivation, and (5) provides practice and policy implications for talent development from the early to later years.
Theoretical Framework
PGM was used as the theoretical lens to help guide this study (Paik, 2013, 2015). Although there are many terms and concepts of “giftedness,” as described earlier, “productive giftedness” refers to mastery and expertise in various talent domains (Paik, 2013, 2015). Broadly defined, productive giftedness is inclusive of high achievement (e.g., intelligence) and/or high ability (e.g., creativity, leadership, other talent areas) at any age. Given that any form of giftedness, talent, or creativity is best understood when made productive (Paik, 2015; Sternberg, Jarvin, & Grigorenko, 2011; Walberg & Paik, 2005), the model also emphasizes the importance of productive or “measurable” outcomes, not just potential.
Developed from interdisciplinary perspectives, the model is largely psychological, but inclusive of education and economic perspectives. From economic perspectives, using layman terms, productivity refers to a higher rate of returns based on one's early investments (Paik, 2015). Similarly, productive giftedness requires early investments for later outcomes. The model is inclusive of home, school, and other learning environments to provide psychological, educational, and other implications. From diverse perspectives, the overall model encourages collaborative efforts from various stakeholders—parents, teachers, mentors, and others matter.
As noted earlier, the conjoining terms, “productive” and “giftedness” refer to an “effort-ability” approach to help actualize potential (Paik, 2013; Paik et al., forthcoming). In some parts of the world, effort and ability are considered opposing views, as exemplified in Eastern versus Western ways of thinking and learning (Paik, 2001, 2008, 2015). The popular conception of giftedness and talent in the United States has traditionally emphasized and favored innate ability, but PGM combines two opposing views—effort and ability—to move beyond potential (Paik, 2013, 2015). In response to the traditional views on giftedness, more recent theories have emerged to emphasize effort such as mindset, grit, deliberate practice, and other related theories (Duckworth, 2016; Dweck, 2006; Ericsson, Prietula, & Cokely, 2007). While these theories provide legitimate arguments in developing expertise, singular perspectives are also limited. Taken in context, these and other perspectives require complementary factors. The complexity of life and talent development calls for a more comprehensive understanding of multiple factors.
Although no theory or model is the end-all, PGM provides a wide-lens perspective to better understand how key factors work together to support talent development (Paik, 2013, 2015; Paik et al., forthcoming). In his seminal research on talented individuals, Bloom (1985) found that “no matter what the initial characteristics (or gifts) of the individuals, unless there is a long and intensive process of encouragement, nurturance, education, and training, the individuals will not attain extreme levels of capability…” (p. 3). Research on talented individuals highlights the importance of supportive conditions, from the early to later years, for realizing talent (Bloom, 1985; Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993; Goertzel, Goertzel, Goertzel, & Hansen, 2004; Paik, 2013; Walberg, 1984).
Given the importance of supportive conditions, PGM posits the need for a comprehensive and systematic examination of ten key factors (See Figure 7.1): Individual Aptitude (Ability, Motivation, Development), Instruction (Learning Climate, Quality of Instruction, Quantity of Instruction), and Environment (Home, Mentoring, Peers, Extracurricular Time). The ten PGM factors influence Productive Outcomes (e.g., achievements, accomplishments, leadership, and later eminence) (Paik, 2013, 2015; Paik et al., 2018). Based on previous research and related work, the overall model is generalizable across diverse populations and accessible given its practical approach to understanding individual differences (Paik, 2001, 2008; 2013; 2015; Paik et al., 2018; Paik et al., forthcoming; Walberg & Paik, 2005).
Productive Giftedness Model
(originally published in Paik et al., 2018).
Note: Within the model, alterable & contextual factors are embedded in each factor.
For an overview of the model, the PGM factors are briefly described below (Paik, 2013, 2015). However, while all the factors are important, for the scope of this article, discussion focuses on the factors related to home and school learning environments, key relationships, motivation, and time as they have been found to be the most influential in talent development (Bloom, 1985; Paik, 2012; Walberg, 1984; Walberg & Paik, 1997). Research has confirmed that learning environments, invested adults, psychological traits, and time usage are key alterable factors (Bloom, 1985; Paik, 2013; Walberg, 1984).
Individual Aptitude
Ability is measured through intelligence or other specialized tests, talent awards, or other milestones.
Motivation includes one's drive, mindset, and other traits that influence productive behavior. Focused motivation is “undeterred, intentional perseverance with an end goal or product in mind” (Paik, 2013, p. 106).
Development is defined as age or life stage; talent development is a continuous process from childhood to adulthood.
Instruction
Learning Climate includes in-school or out-of-school environments that influence academic or other talent experiences (e.g., conditions, expectations).
Quality of Instruction includes quality of teachers or teaching, curriculum, training, or other related factors.
Quantity of Instruction is defined as time spent on learning, schooling, training, or skill-building.
Environment
Home Environment includes family curriculum and climate (e.g., parenting styles, practices, family background).
Mentoring includes formal or informal guidance and support in skill-building.
Peers are those who share similar interests or experiences.
Extracurricular Time is time spent outside of school or work (e.g., hobbies, reading, studying, talent-related activities, technology).
Alterable and Contextual Factors
Unique to PGM, the overall model encapsulates both alterable and contextual factors, which influence opportunities, support, and resources. Alterable (direct) factors are practices, behaviors, or attitudes that can be “altered” or optimized in home, school, or other learning environments by adults or students themselves. For example, expectations, homework time, self-regulation, and reading more can influence learning (Paik, 2008, 2013; Walberg, 1984).
The model also recognizes the importance of contextual factors (less alterable and indirect). While they may not be determining factors, context should not be underestimated as it provides a richer understanding of individuals, especially those from diverse populations (Paik, 2013; Paik & Walberg, 2007; Sternberg, 1999). Within the field of giftedness, talent development, and related fields, there is a need for more frameworks and research that examines diversity and context (Kitano, 1999; Paik, 2013, 2015; Paik et al., 2018; Paik et al., forthcoming). Expertise also needs to be gauged within context, from diverse perspectives (Sternberg et al., 2011). Contextual factors include historical, political, social, cultural, personal, or other factors such as race, class, or gender (Paik, 2013, 2015; Paik et al., 2018). For example, Walberg and Stariha (1992) found that notable female artists and musicians from privileged families had access and opportunity to attend college in the twentieth century. Studies have also found that racism and discrimination were common experiences of notable women of color (Freeman & Walberg, 1999; Paik et al., 2018; Paik et al., forthcoming). Societal and cultural experiences could serve as opportunities or barriers for women or other marginalized populations (Paik & Walberg, 2007; Paik et al., 2018). Contextual factors provide more insight into the role of access and opportunities for individual experiences. Since talent actualization does not occur in a vacuum, both alterable and contextual factors—and how they influence learning and development—need to be understood (Paik, 2013, 2015).
Related Literature
Individual Aptitude: Motivation, Effort, and Ability
Biographical studies have found that intelligence is common among high-achievers; however, traits such as inquisitiveness, hard work, and perseverance have more bearing on success (Freeman & Walberg, 1999; Walberg & Stariha, 1992; Wallace & Walberg, 1987). Psychosocial factors such as motivation, drive, and other skills are key in producing work (Csikszentmihalyi, 1992; Ericsson et al., 2007; Olszewski-Kublius, Subotnik, & Worrell, 2018). Highly motivated individuals also have “growth” mindsets (vs. “fixed”), attributing their success or failure to effort rather than ability (Dweck, 2006). Ability is often seen as the end-all; however, effort should not be underestimated in talent development (Paik, 2015). Nurturing both effort and ability in the early years can also create a stronger foundation, affecting both productivity and opportunities over time (Merton, 1968; Paik, 2015; Walberg & Paik, 2005).
Homes, Schools, and Other Learning Environments
The home environment has been well-documented as the “cradle of eminence” (Goertzel et al., 2004). The majority of childhood is spent at home, where habits, practices, and values are formed (Paik, 2008; Redding, 2003; Walberg & Paik, 1997). Stimulating home environments can increase creativity and learning as well as nurture productive habits and practices in the formative years (Bloom, 1985; Redding, 2003; Walberg & Paik, 1997).
Supportive learning climates promote a sense of belonging, high expectations, and a culture that values learning (Fairweather & Cramond, 2010; Tableman, 2004). Conducive environments also build partnerships and a community of learning (Epstein, 2005). Within homes, schools, and other environments, relationships are key to learning and talent development (Bloom, 1985; Paik, 2013). Intervention strategies for talented students also require conducive learning environments (Assouline, Colangelo, VanTassel-Baska, & Lupkowski-Shoplik, 2015).
The Roles of Parents, Teachers, and Mentors
Within learning environments, what parents, teachers, and mentors do matter for children's overall well-being and development (Paik, 2012, 2013, 2015). The importance of parents’ influence and involvement on talent development has been well-documented (Bloom, 1985; Goertzel et al., 2004; Kiewra, 2014, 2019). Over 90% of students’ waking hours are influenced by parents; what occurs at home matters in the early years (Walberg & Paik, 1997). Parents’ expectations, practices, and involvement influence how children use their time (Bianchi & Robinson, 1997; Redding, 2003).
Within schools and classrooms, the quality of instruction matters for knowledge and skills acquisition. Good teachers are those who possess professional, interpersonal, and intrapersonal knowledge (Collinson, 1996). Teachers impact the morale, motivation, and expectations of their students within classrooms or other settings (Collinson, 1996). Teachers who care about their students holistically are also able to demand more in terms of commitment and performance (Bloom, 1985).
In addition to parents and teachers, mentors play a key role in developing skills and talent (Bloom, 1985; Clasen & Clasen, 2003; Subotnik, Edmiston, Cook, & Ross, 2010). At different developmental stages, mentoring provides academic, career, and psychological benefits (Crisp & Cruz, 2009). Mentoring is beneficial, especially for females or other underserved populations (Paik et al., 2018; Stoeger, Hopp, & Ziegler, 2016). Mentoring matters for developing specific skills and providing long-term career guidance (Bloom, 1985; Clasen & Clasen, 2003; Grassinger, Porath, & Ziegler, 2010).
Time Matters: In and Out of School
Quantity of instruction also matters in learning and talent development (Paik, 2015). Concentrated time and effort as well as opportunity are key factors in productive giftedness (Paik, 2013; Walberg & Paik, 2005). Examples include time spent in school, studying, and training (Fredrick & Walberg, 1980; Kaufman & Kaufman, 2007). Extracurricular time (outside of school or work) also influences behavior or other outcomes (Eccles & Barber, 1999). Constructive activities such as reading, practicing, or other related skills can strengthen and enhance talent (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993; Ericsson & Charness, 1994).
Methodology
Biographical Methods
Biographical case studies have gained popularity, because they allow the “lived experiences” of an individual to be told in narrative format (Creswell, 2012; Cridel, 2016; Roberts, 2002). Biographical research also allows a closer look at one's life history and personal experiences; no other method provides access to historical or inaccessible individuals (Creswell, 2012; Cridel, 2016; Paik et al., 2018; Paik et al., forthcoming). Early research on eminence has confirmed the importance of biographical methods (Cox, 1926; Freeman & Walberg, 1999; Simonton, 1994).
Sample
Purposive sampling was used to ensure notable individuals were pioneers or prominent in their talent fields. The selection criteria were based on notable accomplishments and eminence in their respective fields. As a starting point, the authors carefully reviewed compiled lists of the “Top 100” in each talent field for artists, athletes, innovators, scientists, and writers found through online and print sources (a comprehensive list can be made available). Although ten were “randomly” selected from these lists, they were also consistently cited in multiple lists and biographical resources as being eminent in their talent areas. In finalizing our sample, authors also looked for evidence of “productive outcomes” such as notable awards, acknowledgements, or other accomplishments (please refer to Abilities and Productive Outcomes section).
The final sample included ten notable individuals: two artists (Frida Kahlo, Georgia O'Keefe), two athletes (Michael Phelps, Serena Williams), two innovators (Bill Gates, Steve Jobs), two scientists (Marie Curie, Sally Ride), and two writers (Maya Angelou, Langston Hughes). Diversity of gender, nationality (US, international), and race included six women and six diverse individuals. The sample was also determined by the accessibility and quality of biographical sources.
Data Collection and Content Analyses
PGM was used as a theoretical lens to find “evidence” of the ten factors for notable individuals. Biographical sources (over 150) included autobiographies, biographies, online resources, and recorded interviews (See References for biographical resources cited in this study; a comprehensive list can also be made available). Key commonalities and differences were noted for individuals within and across talent fields. Using a table to standardize data, content analyses were employed to categorize key findings. Systematic review and discussion took place to reach inter-rater agreement among the researchers for codes, themes, and key findings. Key findings are illustrated through the examples below.
Strengths and Limitations
The strength and limitation of this study is its small sample size. Biographical case studies are, by nature, more focused and purposive in sample selection. The more focused approach allowed for an in-depth examination of eminent lives. Extensive resources were used, however, generalizability should be interpreted with caution as ten does not represent all artists, athletes, innovators, scientists, and writers. Nevertheless, this study used a unique and comprehensive framework, resulting in key patterns across individuals and disciplines.
Discussion of Key Findings, Abilities, and Productive Outcomes
Eminent individuals not only had early ability, they were productive throughout their lives and careers. Many also had above average intelligence, but some also cultivated creative and other talent-related skills. As described earlier, productive outcomes include any achievements, accomplishments, leadership opportunities as well as eminence in their talent fields. Below are brief biographies of their early and later abilities as well as productive outcomes.
Artists
Frida Kahlo (1907–1954; Mexican/German female, Mexico). As a child, Kahlo was an avid reader who excelled in school (Herrera, 2002). Aspiring to become a doctor, she was one of the first girls to attend the prestigious college prep school Escuela Nacional Preparatoria (Fabiny, 2013). However, at the age of 18, a traumatic bus accident changed the course of her life (Herrera, 2002). Unable to return to school, she painted during her two-year confinement and developed her artistic skills (Fabiny, 2013; Mataev, 2000). In 1939, the Louvre Museum purchased Kahlo's painting, the first piece by a twentieth century Mexican artist (Fabiny, 2013). By age 47, she produced over 143 paintings (The Frida Kahlo Foundation.org, 2017).
Georgia O'Keeffe (1887–1986; White female, US). O'Keeffe also enjoyed reading and excelled in school (Lisle, 1980). During her childhood, she received many art awards and was also the art editor of her school yearbook (Robinson, 1999; SparkNotes Editors, 2005). She attended the prestigious Art Institute of Chicago and the Art Students League in New York (Lisle, 1980). O'Keefe was the first woman to have a solo exhibit at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1946 (Robinson, 1999). Throughout her seventy-year career, O'Keeffe painted over 2,000 pieces despite her failing eyesight in her 90s (Robinson, 1999). Inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame, she received ten honorary degrees, the Presidential Medal of Freedom and National Medal of Arts (The Art Story Contributors, 2018).
Athletes
Michael Phelps (1985; White male, US). As a child, Phelps excelled in sports due to his competitive drive and agility (Schaller, 2008). During his youth, he was diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and swimming became his best outlet (McMullen, 2006; Schaller, 2008). Phelps started swimming at age 7, and by age 11, his parents took him to top swim coach Bob Bowman who recognized his potential right away (Michael Phelps Biography, n.d.). Phelps made his Olympic debut at age 15 as the youngest male American swimmer (Fishman, 2017). He is the most decorated Olympian of all time with twenty-eight Olympic gold medals and thirty-nine swimming world records (Fishman, 2017; Michael Phelps Biography, n.d.).
Serena Williams (1981; Black female, US). Before their birth, Williams’ parents envisioned Serena and Venus as professional tennis stars (Williams & Paisner, 2009). Their father taught himself so he could teach his daughters how to play tennis (Buckley, 2017). Young Serena practiced daily and developed her tennis skills (Buckley, 2017). Despite her small frame during her youth, Serena's “mental edge” helped her to win many tennis matches (Williams & Paisner, 2009, p. 53). From age 4 to 9, Serena won forty-six of forty-nine tennis tournaments (Biography.com Editors, 2014d.). As the top-earning female athlete, Serena has earned thirty-nine Grand Slam titles and two gold medals (Williams & Paisner, 2009).
Innovators
Bill Gates (1955; White male, US). At age 20, William Gates III became the co-founder of Microsoft (Demuth, 2013). By age 32, he became the world's youngest billionaire (Thibault, 2010). As a child, Gates has been described as being highly energetic, entrepreneurial, independent, and inquisitive (Manes & Andrews, 1993). He had excellent memory, high IQ, and was a voracious reader and constant thinker (Lowe, 1998; Manes & Andrews, 1993). As a National Merit Scholar, Gates scored 1590 (out of 1600) on the SAT and was accepted into Harvard University (Lowe, 1998; Manes & Andrews, 1993). He is also recognized as one of the most influential people of the twentieth century because of his philanthropic work (Demuth, 2013).
Steve Jobs (1955–2011; White/Syrian male, US). Credited as a visionary, Jobs was the co-founder of Apple at the age of 21 (Steve Jobs Biography, 2017). As a child, Jobs was highly inquisitive, creative, and curious; he could read even before he entered elementary school (Isaacson, 2011). After being tested in the 4th grade, his school suggested that he skip two grade levels, but his parents allowed him to skip only one (Isaacson, 2011). As an adult, Jobs has been remarked as having the ability to focus intensely on his goals. His “passion for perfection,” while helpful for innovation and design, also made him highly demanding and controlling at work (Isaacson, 2011).
Scientists
Marie Curie (1867–1934; Polish female, Poland/France). By age 4, Curie read and exhibited early exceptional abilities (Ogilvie, 2011). By age 15, as the top student in her secondary school, she was described as a “brilliant student” (Curie, 1937, p. 56). As women were not allowed to attend university in Poland, she secretly attended the “Flying University”, an underground school that allowed women (Stine, 2014). She later found a way to pursue her MA and PhD degrees at the University of Paris (Stine, 2014). In 1903 and 1911, Curie was the first woman to receive two Nobel Prizes (Curie, 1937). For her notable accomplishments, she also received the Prix Gegner award three times from the French Academy of Science (Dry, 2003). Curie became the first female professor and research director at the University of Paris; she received over 100 honorary titles (Des Jardins, 2011).
Sally Ride (1951–2012; White female, US). In 6th grade, Ride watched astronaut John Glenn fly into space, which began her love for science (Sherr, 2014). During high school, due to Ride's top academic performance, she was encouraged to take science courses at UCLA (Sherr, 2014). Ride received a BA, MA, and PhD in Physics from Stanford University (O'Shaughnessy, 2015; Sherr, 2014). In 1978, out of 8,070 applications for NASA's program, Ride was one of only six women out of thirty-five selected (Friedman, 2014). In 1983, Ride became the first US female astronaut (Macy, 2014). Ride was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame, Astronaut Hall of Fame, and awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom (Friedman, 2014; O'Shaughnessy, 2015).
Writers
Maya Angelou (1928–2014; Black female, US). Angelou exhibited early academic skills in math and reading in school (Angelou, 1969; Winkler, n.d.). She enjoyed reading at the library, and by age 11, Angelou was an avid reader of advanced works by Shakespeare, Johnson, Dunbar, and Whitman (Angelou, 1969; Biography.com Editors, 2014c; Neubauer, 1987). Although Angelou began writing late in life, her writing skills were exemplified when she published her first autobiography, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (Angelou, 1969). Angelou has over seventy publications (Angelou, 1969). She received over twenty honorary degrees and forty awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the National Medal of the Arts (Caskey, 2011; Gillespie, Butler, & Long, 2008).
Langston Hughes (1902–1967; Black male, US). Hughes developed his literary talents early in life and spent considerable time in libraries (Hughes, 1940). At age 12, he read advanced literature by Dunbar, Whitman and Cullen (Rampersad, 2002). He excelled in school and was regarded as a “model student” by his teachers (Hughes, 1940; Rampersad, 2002). He started writing poetry in grammar school, and by age 19, Hughes published his first poem, “The Negro Speaks of Rivers” (Hughes & De Santis, 2001; The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica, 2017). For college, Hughes attended Columbia University and transferred to Lincoln University (Hughes, 1940; Rampersad, 2002). With over fifty publications, he received the Guggenheim Fellowship, NAACP Springard Award, and honorary doctorates (Hughes and De Santis, 2001; Rampersad, 2002).
Talent Development
The African proverb, “it takes a village to raise a child,” has become common knowledge—talent cannot be developed alone. A close look into the lives of eminent individuals further affirms that talent development requires access and opportunities as well as support and resources (Paik, 2013, 2015; Paik et al., 2018; Paik et al., forthcoming). Within key learning communities, talent cannot develop without the active presence of caring adults (Bloom, 1985; Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993; Goertzel et al., 2004; Paik, 2013; Vygotsky, 1978). As such, the study highlights the importance of teachers, mentors, parents and other family members. All together, supportive conditions, key relationships, specialized training, and time investments are necessary for productive outcomes.
Based on the findings, three common stages of talent development emerged across all ten individuals: (1) early exposure and support, (2) talent cultivation, and (3) continuous cultivation. Within these areas, PGM factors (individual, instructional, and environmental factors) were also emergent themes (see Figure 7.1).
Early Exposure and Support
All ten individuals were first introduced to the talent field by a family member or other influential adult. In most cases, the home environment provided early exposure, especially when parents or other immediate family members were directly involved in their talent areas. For many of these individuals, it was a family affair of shared activities and resources. While parent or caregiver involvement came in different forms, they were critical in providing the early building blocks of development. Family support and high expectations mattered in their overall learning and talent development.
For others who did not have direct access through family members, other key adults played a supportive role in their early talent development. It was often teachers or school settings that introduced and cultivated different talent areas. All individuals were not only exposed to the field early, but they were able to gain learning opportunities and support in their fields. The following examples illustrate both common and unique experiences of their early exposure and support.
Artists
Frida Kahlo's father was a painter and photographer who often took young Frida on his travels. He not only introduced her to history, art, and architecture, but encouraged her artistic abilities as a child (Fabiny, 2013). Painting was also valued in the family as Kahlo's German grandfather was also a painter (The Frida Kahlo Foundation.org, 2017).
Similarly, art was valued in O'Keefe’s family as her two grandmothers and two sisters also painted (Lisle, 1980). Upon seeing her daughter's talent, her mother encouraged her to paint (Biography.com Editors, 2014a; Robinson, 1999). Growing up, O'Keefe was surrounded by artists and painting was a way of life in their household. Her mother kept a strict home with high expectations for her children (Lisle, 1980; Robinson, 1999).
Nurtured by their parents and family members, both Kahlo and O'Keefe's love of art began in their homes. In particular, Kahlo's father and O'Keeffe's mother were influential in their early years (Herrera, 2002; Robinson, 1999). Painting was not only passed down generationally, but it was encouraged in their home environments. Interestingly, both Kahlo and O'Keefe also married their artist mentors; Diego Rivera and Alfred Stieglitz (respectively) helped support and promote their work during their careers (Herrera, 2002; Lisle, 1980).
Athletes
Phelps started swimming at age 7 because his two older sisters were already swimmers (Michael Phelps Biography, n.d.). Although he was initially afraid of the water, he practiced regularly and soon developed his skills (Schaller, 2008). His parents also encouraged him to swim due to his ADHD, which became a constructive outlet for Phelps (Schaller, 2008).
Williams’ father, an avid tennis fan, envisioned his daughters as tennis champions even before their birth (Buckley, 2017). He bought books and videos to teach himself tennis and began coaching his daughters at an early age, believing they would become professional athletes (Serena Williams Biography, n.d.). Serena is the youngest of five daughters (two full, three half-sisters), who all played tennis (Serena Williams Biography, n.d.). Her sister Venus is also a champion tennis player (Williams & Paisner, 2009).
Sports was not only valued in their home environments, but it was also a family affair for both athletes. In both families, children developed their athletic talent at a young age. Parents also planned family events and activities around sports, where siblings played and competed against each other, encouraging and spurring on one another (McMullen, 2006; Serena Williams Biography, n.d.).
Innovators
In the 1960s, 14-year old Bill Gates was introduced to computers and programming when he joined Lakeside School's Computer Club (Demuth, 2013). Gates’ parents knew he was gifted and bored at his previous school so they sent him to Lakeside School (Demuth, 2013). The new school was more challenging and his teachers were supportive, but he eventually surpassed their computer skills (Manes & Andrews, 1993). While growing up, Gates’ parents and grandparents were actively involved in his life, providing access and opportunities to develop his interests and skills (Manes & Andrews, 1993).
Steve Jobs was first exposed to the world of electronics by his adopted father who was a machinist. Jobs’ love for electronics began with weekly junkyard visits with his father to scour for car parts and other trinkets (Isaacson, 2011). Later, Hewlett Packard (HP) engineer Larry Lang introduced Jobs to the HP Explorer's Club, where he had the rare opportunity to pilot his own projects and preview the personal computer (Steve Jobs biography, n.d.). Despite their limited means, his parents relocated to find a better school, which gave Jobs access to neighbors and friends in technology in the Silicon Valley (Isaacson, 2011).
Both Jobs and Gates tinkered with computers when the personal computer was still a rare invention. Through their schools and neighborhoods, they had access to computers, computer clubs as well as like-minded peers, all of which supported their technology interests.
Scientists
Marie Curie's mother was a school principal and her father was a physics and math teacher who ingrained a love of learning in Curie (Curie, 1937; Stine, 2013). Her father not only introduced her to physics, but he turned every conversation into a teaching moment for young Curie (Pasachoff, 1997). She also had the opportunity to explore the scientific apparatus her father brought home, which cultivated her passion for science (Pasachoff, 1997).
After viewing John Glenn's blast into space during her 6th grade class, Sally Ride became interested in science (O'Shaughnessy, 2015). Ride's father was a professor and her mother a teacher; both encouraged her love for learning (Stine, 2013). To support her interests, her parents provided science equipment and a subscription to “Scientific American” (Sherr, 2014). Ride's parents encouraged her to pursue her love for science as they remarked “We wanted our daughters to excel, not conform” (Sherr, 2014, p. 11).
Nurtured by both sets of parents, both Curie and Ride's fascination with science started in their early years. Both had educator parents who also loved learning and encouraged their intellectual development (Ogilvie, 2011; Stine, 2013, 2014). Interestingly, both Curie and Ride married fellow scientists: Pierre Curie, a fellow physicist and Steve Hawley, a fellow astronaut (respectively) (Ogilvie, 2011; Pasachoff, 1997). Ride later divorced Hawley and partnered with fellow science writer, Tam O'Shaughnessy (Stine, 2014).
Writers
Maya Angelou was first exposed to advanced literature by her teacher, Ms. Flowers (Manora, 2005). She often spent time reading in the library (Labrecque, 2016). Uncle Willie and her grandmother believed in the importance of education and encouraged her to read, calling her the “little professor” (Labrecque, 2016). Young Maya was raised by her grandmother who nurtured and believed that she would be called to greatness some day (Labrecque, 2016).
Similarly, Langston Hughes’ grandmother also raised him and read literature to him while growing up. Hughes also spent his time in libraries (Hughes, 1940; Rampersad, 2002). For Hughes, writing was a family affair as his mother and great uncle also enjoyed writing (Hughes, 1940; Rampersad, 2002). Hughes came from an educated and prominent family. For example, his maternal grandmother was one of the first black female graduates from Oberlin College and his great uncle served as Congressman and Dean of the first Law School at Howard University. As a businessman, his father also practiced law (Hughes, 1940; Rampersad, 2002).
Although the introductions to writing differed for Angelou and Hughes, both grandmothers were their guardians at the time and played a key role in their upbringing. Historically, it was common practice for grandmothers to raise their grandchildren due to changes in family structure or parents’ socio-economic challenges (Ford, 1996; Lipscomb, 2005). At the time, many parents had to move to northern states to look for more opportunity and employment (Smith-Ruiz, 2004). For both Angelou and Hughes, their parents were separated and sought opportunities elsewhere for similar reasons (Rampersad, 2002; Labrecque, 2016).
Both were raised by strong grandmothers with high expectations (Manora, 2005; Rampersad, 2002). As for their writing, Hughes had access to writers in his own family, while Angelou found more writing opportunities outside of her home.
Talent Cultivation
All ten individuals had early ability, recognition and nurturance by key adults in both formal and informal learning environments. All ten received learning opportunities either at home, school, or other environments. In addition to parents and caregivers, other adults played an increasingly active role in talent development, as found in Bloom's (1985) study. Teachers and mentors mattered increasingly more in talent cultivation. Many parents or caregivers were first teachers, and few also became first mentors. For other notable individuals, schoolteachers made a significant difference in their lives. Some had master teachers or coaches who helped develop their talent at different stages (Bloom, 1985). For all ten individuals, mentoring and training were instrumental at every stage of talent development: Phelps and Williams had coaches; Angelou, Curie, O'Keefe, and Ride were influenced by teachers; Gates, Hughes, Jobs, and Kahlo were mentored by field experts. Some individuals had more than one mentor throughout their career. High expectations were held in their learning community by teachers, mentors, parents and other family members. The overall findings below highlight key relationships, learning environments, and early instructional experiences.
Artists
Frida Kahlo did exceptionally well at the prestigious National Preparatory School (Fabiny, 2013). Her father continued to encourage her and believed she was intelligent (Herrera, 2002). Her artistic talent, however, developed only after a life-altering bus accident (Fabiny, 2013). Bed-ridden for 2 years, she was not able to return to school and began painting during this time (Fabiny, 2013). Her talent was later affirmed by Fernando Fernandez, a commercial paint maker who taught her engraving and drawing (Herrera, 2002; Mataev, 2000). Kahlo's father introduced her to art and photography, but muralist Diego Rivera became her mentor who she eventually married (Fabiny, 2013; Herrera, 2002).
Upon recognizing her 12-year old daughter's talent, O'Keeffe's mother arranged art lessons with Sara Mann, a local artist (Biography.com Editors, 2014a; The Art Story Contributors, 2018). William Chase at Arts Students League later taught O'Keeffe technique (Lisle, 1980). She also met Professor Alon Bement at the University of Virginia who introduced her to Arthur Wesley Dow at Teachers’ College who taught her abstract composition (Robinson, 1999). O'Keefe's mentors included her teacher Mrs. Willis, Arthur Dow, and artist (and later husband) Alfred Stieglitz (SparkNotes Editors, 2005).
Athletes
By age 11, Michael Phelps’ parents recognized his swimming talent and hired Coach Bob Bowman, who predicted that Phelps would qualify for the 2000 Australia Olympics by age 15 (Schaller, 2008). To support his talent, Phelps’ mother moved the family closer to his aquatic training center where he worked closely with Coach Bowman (McMullen, 2006).
At age 3, Serena Williams started playing tennis with her father (Williams & Paisner, 2009). By age 4, she won her first tennis match (Buckley, 2017; William & Paisner, 2009). By age 9, Coach Rick Macci invited Serena and her sister Venus to attend his exclusive tennis academy where he helped cultivate their skills (Serena Williams Biography, n.d.). During her career, Williams was mentored by both her father and Coach Macci (Serena Williams Biography, n.d.).
Innovators
Bill Gates learned programming at Lakeside School, but he eventually surpassed his teachers (Manes & Andrews, 1993). He also had multiple opportunities to practice programming by testing computer programs at C-Cubed, creating Lakeside's scheduling software, and even writing a payroll program for Information Sciences Inc (Manes & Andrews, 1993). Throughout his career, Gates developed a close mentoring relationship with Warren Buffet (Baer, 2014).
Steve Jobs’ fourth grade teacher, Mrs. Hill, recommended that he skip two grade levels (Isaacson, 2011). It was his schoolteachers who recognized his early ability including his high school teacher who also motivated him academically (Isaacson, 2011). Outside of school, Larry Lang engaged him in electronics and the HP Explorer's Club, where he had the opportunity to preview new inventions (Steve Jobs biography, n.d.). Jobs was later mentored by microchip co-inventor Robert Noyce (Bergelson, 2015).
Scientists
Marie Curie's father taught and mentored her in math and physics (Stine, 2014). She also had the opportunity to experiment with her father's lab equipment at home (Pasachoff, 1997). Teachers provided opportunities for Curie as she did exceptionally well in school (Stine, 2014). Later, Curie was instructed by Nobel Prize winner Gabriel Lippman and Pulitzer winner Joseph Boussinesq as well as other well-known scientists (Ogilvie, 2011). During her career, Lippmann and Antoine Henri Becquerel were her key mentors (Quinn, 2011).
When Sally Ride became interested in science, her parents purchased a chemistry set, microscope, and science magazines (Sherr, 2014). She attended the prestigious Westlake School, where Dr. Elizabeth Mommaerts mentored Ride (Sherr, 2014; Stine, 2013). She was encouraged to take extra classes at UCLA to cultivate her interests (Sherr, 2014). Later, Arthur Walker became Ride's professor, thesis advisor, and mentor at Stanford where they developed the first model of the interaction of X-rays and interstellar gas (Bergelson, 2014).
Writers
Maya Angelou's grandmother was convinced that she would become a preacher and teach others (Winkler, n.d.). It was Angelou's teacher and mentor, Ms. Flowers, who encouraged her to read and recite literature by Shakespeare (Angelou, 1969). She read and wrote privately in her early years. As a teenage single mother, Angelou had to work various jobs to support herself (The Academy of Achievement, 2017). Later, she met novelist John Oliver Killens who encouraged her to continue writing. Soon after, she developed more of her writing skills at age 31 (Lewis, 2019). She also joined the Harlem Writers Guild and started publishing (The Academy of Achievement, 2017).
Langston Hughes’ teachers regarded him as an exemplary student (Rampersad, 2002). Teachers noticed his early abilities, in particular, his composition teacher recognized his intelligence and introduced him to poetry by Whitman (Rampersad, 2002). Hughes began writing in grammar school and sent his work to publishers in high school (Hughes, 1940). Hughes was also encouraged at home to write as his family members were avid readers and writers (Hughes, 1940). Later, his support network included the diasporic writers’ network, which supported his writing (Rampersad, 2002). Harlem Renaissance supporter Carl Van Vechten mentored Hughes (Bernard, 2007).
Continuous Cultivation
In addition to the support of key adults and early learning opportunities, their continuous cultivation was clearly aligned with their unwavering commitment to the field. Coming from diverse backgrounds and upbringings, many had challenges (for example, health issues, trauma, injuries, losses, poverty). However, they all had the ability to persevere despite challenging circumstances, demonstrating “focused motivation” and resilience (Paik, 2013, 2015). They laid aside distractions, practiced their talent, and spent increasingly more time, energy, and resources developing their craft. Many also went on for further instruction and training, specializing in their talent fields. Most time was spent on their own talent cultivation, but many also enjoyed reading (9 out of 10). The examples below illustrate the importance of self-commitment, focused motivation, specialized training, and time investments.
Artists
While growing up, Frida Kahlo had a number of challenging health issues. She contracted polio as a little girl, leaving her leg permanently deformed (Fabiny, 2013). Later, her bus accident derailed her medical career and left her bed-ridden, but Kahlo used the time to learn how to paint (Cruz, 1996; Fabiny, 2013). She enjoyed drawing as a child and was able to return to her love for art during her recovery (Fabiny, 2013). She also spent time cultivating and refining her artistic style during her travels (Herrera, 2002).
Young Georgia O'Keefe took art lessons and attended the Art Institute of Chicago for part of her education as well as the Art Students League in New York (Robinson, 1999). Despite taking some time off from school for typhoid fever, she persevered with her painting (Biography.com Editors, 2014a). She later took more courses at University of Virginia and Teachers’ College to develop her skills (Lisle, 1980; Robinson, 1999). In her career, O'Keefe was a perfectionist “driving herself to paint every day and feeling guilty when she didn't” (Lisle, 1980, p. 65). O'Keeffe painted into her 90s, despite her failing vision from macular degeneration (Robinson, 1999).
Athletes
Michael Phelps fractured his right wrist at the peak of his career, but used the recovery time to strengthen his kick (TheFamousPeople.com Editors, 2017). He is described as being driven, goal-oriented, and determined (Michael Phelps Biography, n.d.). Throughout his career, Phelps practiced and trained regularly with Coach Bowman (McMullen, 2006).
Young Serena Williams practiced tennis 3–4 hours daily, training about 30 hours per week as she grew older (Fillon, 1999; Williams & Paisner, 2009). Williams lost many tournaments due to multiple injuries, but stayed focused and won eight (of eleven) tournaments in 2002 (Serena Williams Biography, n.d.). Williams spent most of her time practicing, but she enjoyed reading in her spare time (Fillon, 1999).
Innovators
Gates was described by family members as having an “obsessive focus” (Manes & Andrews, 1993, p. 21). At Harvard, he spent most of his time reading about technology or programming in the computer lab at the cost of a social life (Manes & Andrews, 1993). To cultivate his talent, he took advanced computer courses (Smith, 2015). Gates attended Harvard, but dropped out to develop his company. He found school boring or more of a distraction as he taught himself technology skills (Manes & Andrews, 1993).
Steve Jobs attended Reed College for a short term, but like Gates, he dropped out for similar reasons to pursue his interests in technology (Isaacson, 2011). However, he later continued to cultivate his knowledge by auditing classes at Stanford while working at Atari (Isaacson, 2011). Jobs was also entrepreneurial and spent time investing in his own interests. He also enjoyed reading and learning about technology (Isaacson, 2011; Pollack & Belviso, 2012). Jobs was known to “set priorities, aim his laser attention on them, and filter out distractions” (Isaacson, 2011, p. 564).
Scientists
Marie Curie secretly attended the “Flying University”, a traveling underground university that hid from Russian police (Stine, 2014). She started her education there, but it was at the University of Paris where she received her MA and PhD. in physics (Ogilvie, 2011). Curie spent most of her time studying and reading (Curie, 1937). As for challenges, at age 10, Curie lost her mother and oldest sister, and later lost her husband to a carriage accident (Ogilvie, 2011). She also had dire financial constraints and worked under unfavorable conditions before her discoveries (Curie, 1937). After winning the Nobel Prize, Curie still continued to research tirelessly.
Sally Ride attended Swarthmore College, but became homesick and returned to California (Stine, 2013). She eventually earned her BA, MA, and Ph.D. in physics from Stanford University (O'Shaughnessy, 2015). Ride would “study like crazy” and pursue science with abandon (O'Shaughnessy, 2015, p. 44). She enjoyed reading and spent a lot of time in labs (O'Shaughnessy, 2015).
Writers
At age 7, Maya Angelou was raped by her mother's boyfriend, becoming a mute after her rapist was killed. She did not speak for over five years, and she read vigorously during this time (Labrecque, 2016; The Academy of Achievement, 2017). Later, as a 16-year old teenage mother, she temporarily dropped out of school to work multiple jobs (Angelou, 1969; Biography.com Editors, 2014c). Angelou remained determined and cultivated her talent later in life. She spent time traveling as an editor and freelance writer (Angelou, 1969). Throughout her career, she continued to write in solitude from 7 am to 2 pm (The Black Scholar, 1977).
Langston Hughes attended Columbia University, but transferred to Lincoln University due to issues of discrimination (Hughes, 1940). He also witnessed the burning of a black neighborhood and a lynched black man (Rampersad, 2002). Hughes experienced racism first-hand when a university position was withdrawn due to his race (Scott, 2006). Despite these struggles, Hughes spent his time reading and writing, especially during his travels (Hughes, 1940). He taught workshops in schools to encourage young black writers (Scott, 2006). Hughes’ writings included poetry, fiction, autobiographies, plays, and children's literature (Sundquist, 1996).
Contextual Factors: Opportunities and Barriers
Despite similarities in focused motivation and resilience, the individuals developed their character under varying conditions. In addition to personal life events, they also experienced other contextual challenges. Below are some examples of historical, socio-cultural, and demographic factors.
Historical and Socio-Cultural Contexts
Different time periods within socio-cultural contexts influence access and opportunities. For instance, Curie came from an educated family, but Russian rule over Poland in the mid-1800s affected their financial stability and status (Ogilvie, 2011). Kahlo was born during the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which influenced her art (Herrera, 2002). At a time when computers were rare in the 1960s, Gates and Jobs were among the first to ride the technology wave, allowing them to monopolize the field (Demuth, 2013; Pollack & Belviso, 2012).
Gender in Context
Pioneering female artists and scientists Curie, Kahlo, O'Keefe, and Ride experienced challenges as women in male-dominated fields (Biography.com Editors, 2014a; Curie, 1937; Herrera, 2002; O'Shaughnessy, 2015). They lived during a time when women's careers were not always encouraged, especially in their fields. In Curie's case, women were not even allowed to attend university in Poland. As the first female astronaut, Ride had to deal with gender bias from her male counterparts as well as the media (O'Shaughnessy, 2015; Stine, 2014). At the time, women painters did not have their own careers, which often came secondary to husband's careers (Biographies.com Editors, 2014a; Fabiny, 2013; Herrera, 2002).
Race in Context
Discrimination and racism were common themes for all diverse individuals. For example, Angelou, Hughes, and Williams faced a number of challenges (Hughes, 1940; Labrecque, 2016; Maya Angelou Biography, 2014). The US history of slavery and racial segregation have had significant effects on the African American community. Although it was a different time for them, they still experienced discrimination in different ways. For instance, Angelou was segregated to colored schools (Labrecque, 2016). Hughes witnessed a lynched black man and faced racism in school and professional positions (Rampersand, 2002). As pioneers, Williams and her sister also faced discrimination as they were the “only African Americans competing in major tennis tournaments…” (Edmondson, 2005, p. 9). Both activist writers took the opportunity to address discrimination and injustice in their writing. Williams has also used her platform to support important causes.
Class in Context
Social class had bearing on all the individuals, providing both opportunities and barriers. All came from diverse backgrounds, affecting access, support, and resources. Gates, Phelps, and Ride came from middle to upper middle-class families, with educated parents who were working professionals (Manes & Andrews, 1993; O'Shaughnessy, 2015; Schaller, 2008). Jobs and Williams came from lower middle-class families (Serena Williams Biography, n.d.; Isaacson, 2011). Both Jobs’ adoptive parents, a machinist father and bookkeeper mother, had a high school education (Isaacson, 2011). Williams was partially raised in Compton, California, “a rough, often violent,” part of Los Angeles (Serena Williams Biography, n.d.).
Curie, Kahlo, and O'Keeffe's middle-class families went through financial difficulty due to social or political circumstances, which affected their schooling or other experiences (Curie, 1937; Herrera, 2002; Robinson, 1999). Angelou and Hughes came from landowning families, but both families experienced racism (Hughes, 1940; Labrecque, 2016; Maya Angelou Biography, 2014c). Hughes, however, came from a well-established, educated family with connections, but experienced poverty as a child (Hughes, 1940).
Summary of Key PGM Findings Across Talent Domains
The findings showed that productive giftedness requires developmental stages for all talent domains. As illustrated in earlier sections, a closer examination reveals key PGM factors (individual, instructional, and environmental factors) were commonly found in each stage. Key points are summarized below.
Individual Aptitude
All individuals had early ability and progressed with more concentrated effort over time (Paik, 2013, 2015). Although personality traits differed, many had above average intelligence and/or excelled in school (Angelou, 1969; Curie, 1937; Herrera, 2002; Hughes, 1940; Isaacson, 2011; Lisle, 1980; Manes & Andrew, 1993; Sherr, 2014; Winkler, n.d., Rampersad, 2002). Having early exposure, recognition, opportunities, and support helped individuals to excel in their youth, allowing an accumulative advantage over time. Despite varying contextual factors, all individuals displayed focused motivation and resilience.
Instruction
Formally trained by coaches, athletes had the most systematic and uniform talent development. Obtaining the highest education among all disciplines, scientists were trained by notable scientists at rigorous institutions. For writers, schoolteachers were among the first to identify and cultivate their literary talents, providing access to rigorous books and opportunities for writing. Formal instruction and training played a lesser role in the development of innovators, who were primarily self-taught. They found school boring and later dropped out of university. Similarly, training opportunities for athletes were mainly outside of school. Both artists had high academic and artistic abilities, and they cultivated their artistry through master teachers and mentors.
Environment
Home support was key in talent development for all individuals. However, innovators, scientists, and artists had well-connected parents or other adults in the same field, providing more access and opportunities. Not all writers and athletes had equal connections, but they still had tremendous support and opportunities along the way despite some barriers. Teachers at different stages were critical as were mentors. Athletes were mentored by coaches while scientists were mentored by other scientists. Artists were mentored by expert artists. Innovators were mentored by entrepreneurs as they each developed their businesses. Writers were influenced by teachers and mentors, but both had a writing support group.
Individuals spent most of their extracurricular time in activities related to their talent field. Innovators spent time tinkering with technology and programming. Artists spent time painting and lived in different places to pursue their artistic talent. Writers spent time writing and traveling. Athletes were busy practicing and training for competition. Scientists spent a lot of time studying and reading, but almost all also enjoyed reading.
Contextual Factors
Historical, socio-cultural, and demographic factors such as race, class, and gender emerged as common themes, serving as barriers or opportunities. For female artists and scientists, gender issues were prevalent. For African American writers, both experienced racism, which fueled their activist writing. Of all groups, innovators appeared to have more access to social capital as both were situated in resource-rich neighborhoods and schools. Athletes had varying experiences, largely due to socio-economic and family backgrounds. However, socio-economic backgrounds influenced opportunities, support, and resources for all individuals.
Conclusion and Implications
“What we found were exceptional conditions, not exceptional kids.”
Benjamin Bloom (1985)
Based on the PGM, the overall findings confirm the importance of supportive conditions at every stage of talent development as found in prior research (Bloom, 1985; Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993). Based on the findings, the study identified key developmental stages across disciplines: early exposure and support, talent cultivation, and continuous cultivation. In the context of the model, the study also offers some new perspectives on productive giftedness. Key points from the article are highlighted below.
First, productive giftedness requires multiple factors that work in concert with one another. PGM provides a comprehensive and systematic lens to understand how individual, instructional, and environmental factors influence mastery and excellence over time. The model helped delineate commonalities and differences across notable individuals within and across talent domains. Based on interdisciplinary perspectives, PGM encourages various stakeholders to work together to create supportive conditions.
Second, productive giftedness compounds over time. Early exposure, recognition, and support in the early years can lead to later accomplishments (Walberg & Paik, 1997). While talent cultivation is possible later in life (e.g., Angelou, Kahlo), early preparation provides an accumulative advantage over time, as demonstrated by most individuals in this study (Merton, 1968; Paik, 2015). For example, O'Keefe's early start allowed her to produce over 2,000 paintings during her career.
Third, parents, teachers, mentors, and others matter in talent cultivation. One of the emergent dominant themes showed the importance of key relationships at every stage. Children need adults to bring out their talent. Parents and teachers can work together to provide high expectations, accountability, and more opportunities for children. As parents and teachers may not have the expertise, mentors were essential for developing skills across all disciplines.
Fourth, in addition to supportive conditions, without exception, one needs individual agency and personal commitment to their own success. All eminent individuals found their own motivation and persevered throughout their career despite (and because of) their adversity (Gardner, 1993). All ten individuals displayed focused motivation and resilience, practicing and spending most of their time developing their craft. As emphasized in the model, both effort and ability need nurturance; continual effort and motivation help move ability forward (Paik, 2013, 2015).
Fifth, learning is contagious. All ten individuals loved learning. Interestingly, most were also avid readers. At every stage of talent cultivation, they were surrounded by those who also loved learning. Those formal and informal communities—made up of parents, teachers, mentors, and others—provided role models, accountability, and a culture of high expectations. Finding a support network was essential for all notable individuals.
Sixth, not all talent paths were linear. The diversity of class, gender, race, personal experiences, and other contextual factors is a complex issue, but they provide insights into one's opportunities, support, and resources. For instance, Marie Curie was raised during a time when women did not have access to higher education. She also experienced financial difficulty and several deaths within her own family. These contextual factors provide insight in her struggles and opportunities. Although contextual factors may not be alterable, they help us to understand the individual at that point in time. Life circumstances and human behavior are complex, calling for a greater understanding of the whole person. More frameworks and research are needed to support and understand diversity and contextual factors.
Seventh, since contextual factors cannot be altered, what then can we “alter”? The PGM factors are largely alterable by adults or students themselves. In other words, we can optimize learning environments, beliefs, practices, attitudes, and time usage in others and ourselves. For example, setting target goals, reading more, finding a mentor, providing high expectations, using appropriate curriculum, or creating family-school partnerships can render positive changes. While we cannot change everything, most environments are alterable, but power resides in knowing what we and others can change to create better learning conditions. Invested adults and students can carefully evaluate and make appropriate adjustments in their own environments.
Lastly, peers, another PGM factor, is an important factor, but it was beyond the scope of this article. However, future studies should examine the importance of peers as there is evidence of its effects (Paik, 2013; Paik et al., forthcoming). Although the current study found commonalities, future studies might also include more biographical cases to study additional patterns.
In summary, productive giftedness requires a comprehensive approach. Taken together, individual, instructional, and environmental factors can and do make a difference at every stage of talent cultivation. Additionally, the collaborative effort of a supportive community – parents, teachers, mentors, and others – make for large differences. Along with individual commitment and perseverance, intentional learning communities can help nurture young talent.
Note
Biographies
Susan J. Paik, PhD, is an associate professor in the School of Education at Claremont Graduate University. Her research interests include educational productivity, productive giftedness, talent and leader development, research methods and evaluation. She has several research projects on learning and talent development.
Charlina Gozali is a doctoral candidate in education at Claremont Graduate University. Her research interests include teaching, learning, and development. She received a competitive dissertation grant to study talent and leader development in Indonesia.
Kenya R. Marshall-Harper is a doctoral candidate in education at Claremont Graduate University. Her research interests include K-12 preparation of gifted and talented students from underserved populations. Her dissertation focuses on the talent development of African American faculty.
